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Can YouTube stay on top? Ambatchmasterpublisher

2007-06-19T17:36:00.000-07:00

Can YouTube stay on top? Ambatchmasterpublisher

The online video kingpin's marriage with Google should keep YouTube in front. But some rivals sense an opportunity to catch up.
By Paul R. La Monica, CNNMoney.com editor at large
November 14 2006: 9:15 AM EST

NEW YORK (CNNMoney.com) -- It's only been a little more than a month since Google shook up the online video world by announcing that it was buying YouTube for $1.65 billion.

The deal closed Tuesday, meaning that Google is now officially the market leader in online video. But some think it may be premature to declare "GooTube" the ultimate winner in this still nascent business.
google_youtube.03.jpg
Google-YouTube may be the online video gorilla but some see room for other competitors.
TECHNOLOGY
Online video explosion
YouTube isn't the only site benefitting from the popularity of online video.
Total unique visitors (in millions)
Site Aug. 06 Sept. 06 Oct. 06
YouTube 19.1 20.8 23.5
Yahoo Video 21.1 18.6 20.9
Google Video 11.9 13.2 14.6
MSN Video 15.4 17.1 13.9
MySpace Videos N/A 8.9 10.0
Heavy.com 7.6 6.9 7.8
Ebaumsworld.com 5.1 4.3 4.2
Metacafe 1.8 4.2 3.8
Break.com 2.5 3.5 2.8
Source:comScore Media Metrix

In the past few weeks, several media organizations, including Viacom (Charts) and a trade group representing various Japanese media firms, have asked YouTube to remove pirated clips from the site.
Google buys YouTube for $1.65 billion

At the same time, several media firms have stepped up efforts to promote their own broadband video offerings.

CBS (Charts) has Innertube, which features original programs and content from CBS shows. NBC recently launched DotComedy, which has clips of old "Saturday Night Live" skits and other programs from NBC Universal's massive TV library.

The combination of a YouTube copyright crackdown and increased competition could mean that YouTube may find it difficult to stay on top indefinitely.

To be sure, there does not appear to be any sort of YouTube backlash so far. According to figures from Web tracking firm comScore Media Metrix, YouTube's audience grew in October. The site had 23.5 million unique visitors last month, compared to 20.8 million in September and 19.1 million in August.

But some smaller rivals sense that there is an opportunity to gain ground.

Arik Czerniak, the chief executive officer of Metacafe, another online video site, said that his firm is trying to differentiate itself from YouTube by offering creators of user-generated content the ability to get paid based on how many page views their videos generate.
Meet the sons of YouTube

Another online video site, Revver, also pays users who submit popular videos. Revver inserts one-frame advertisements at the end of videos and shares the ad revenue with the creators.

"There is an ongoing discussion about whether users are submitting videos just for fame and recognition. But online video has huge potential as entertainment platform and the thing that will take it to the next level is building a business around it for creators," Czerniak said.

Metacafe has seen its audience grow in recent months, from 1.8 million visitors in August to 4.2 million in September. Traffic dipped to 3.7 million in October, though. Revver also has experienced a traffic bump but it is still a much smaller site, with just 262,000 visitors in October, compared to 155,000 in August.

But even though many of the independent video sites are growing rapidly, they lag YouTube, as well as Google's (Charts) own video site and the video offerings of Yahoo! (Charts), News Corp.'s (Charts) MySpace and Microsoft's (Charts) MSN, by a wide margin.

Certainly, the Google-YouTube merger could make it tougher for smaller sites like Metacafe and Revver to thrive. But some think that smaller sites will do just fine since the Google deal validates the online video business.
Making money from Mentos

In fact, larger media companies may look to partner with, or outright acquire, other online video firms in order to compete more effectively against Google.

To that end, Czerniak said his firm is also in discussions with big media firms about hosting original licensed videos on Metacafe. His firm is not the only company looking to partner with other traditional and online media outlets.

"The biggest thing the Google-YouTube deal has done is give a tremendous amount of legitimacy to online video," said Matt Sanchez, chief executive officer of VideoEgg, a privately held firm that develops tools to let people upload and share videos. "Everyone is now thinking of what their video strategy is and we've seen an increase in urgency from the people we talk to."

VideoEgg is trying to be more of a partner with larger firms as opposed to a destination site for user videos. In addition to tools, VideoEgg has also developed an online video ad platform that's used by social networking sites such as Bebo, Dogster and Tagged.

Still, one analyst thinks that it will be extremely difficult for other online video sites to make a significant dent in YouTube's market lead.

"YouTube has a distinct advantage from being a leader. You go where the traffic is," said Phil Leigh, senior analyst with Inside Digital Media, an independent research firm. "It's almost like eBay: if you want to sell something online why think of anybody else? Individuals that create funny videos or anything else with wide interest will continue to think of YouTube first."

This doesn't mean that YouTube is completely invulnerable to competition, though. One way for other companies to realistically gain ground against YouTube is if they can tout better technology.

"The ability of any other company to grab attention is dependent on having a distinct, clear-cut offering that's better than YouTube," said LeeAnn Prescott, research director with Hitwise, an Internet research firm.

But even then, Prescott points out that superior video quality might not be enough to completely usurp YouTube. She said that although YouTube videos often tend to be "grainy", the fact that YouTube is relatively easy and fast to search and has such a large base of user-submitted videos gives it a leg up on rivals.

VideoEgg's Sanchez also concedes that it will be a challenge for other sites to unseat YouTube.

"Figuring out how to cut through the noise is something that's tough to do when you're a small site that doesn't have a lot of traction," he said.

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2007-06-13T21:46:00.000-07:00

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2007-06-13T14:32:00.000-07:00

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Stone

2007-06-02T06:17:00.000-07:00

[edit] In geology
Rock (geology), a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, or an individual piece of rock
Marble, a metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of limestone
See also: list of rocks, a list of naturally-occurring rock types

[edit] In print and literature
Stone trilogy, novels by Graham Edwards
Stone (novel), a science fiction novel by Adam Roberts
Stone (Marvel Comics), a martial artist first featured in the Daredevil series
Stone (Image Comics), a character created by Whilce Portacio and published under the Image Comics name

[edit] In film and television
Stone (film), a 1974 Australian biker film produced and directed by Sandy Harbutt
The Stones (TV series), an American sitcom
Piedras (film), (Stones), a 2002 Spainsh film directed by Ramon Salazar

[edit] In music
The Rolling Stones, often known simply as "The Stones"
Stone (band), a Finnish thrash metal band
The Stones (New Zealand band), a New Zealand rock band
12 Stones, an American Christian rock band
"Stones" (song), a song popular within the Ultima universe
Stones (Neil Diamond album), released in 1971

Wacky Race and Weird Cotswolds Tradition - Cheese Rolling in Gloucestershire

2007-06-02T06:16:00.001-07:00

During rationing, a wooden wheel replaced the cheese rolling down the hill - but a small piece of cheese was always placed in the center of it, to keep up the tradition. In those days, the prize was a 50 pence piece.
Today, besides bumps and bruises, the winner takes home a handmade Double Gloucester cheese made by Mrs. Diana Smart of Churcham. Mrs. Smart is the only person in Gloucestershire still making Double Gloucester cheeses by hand, using traditional methods

Cooper's Hill Cheese Rolling

2007-06-02T06:11:00.000-07:00

Once a year, as they have done for hundreds of years, young men and women hurl themselves down a hill so steep that it is impossible to remain standing, in pursuit of a seven or eight pound wheel of locally made Double Gloucester cheese.

No one knows exactly when the tradition of people throwing themselves down Cooper's Hill in Brockworth, south east of Gloucester, began but it was already a well-established Whitsun event in the early 1800s

Wolfgang's Absolutely Luscious Brownies

2007-06-01T09:38:00.000-07:00

Position rack in center of oven and preheat oven to 350 degrees. Butter, or coat with vegetable spray, an 8-inch square baking pan.
Dust with flour, tapping out excess flour.
Set aside.
In the top of double boiler or medium heatproof bowl set over simmering water, combine chocolate, butter, and espresso (if desired), stirring occasionally until almost melted.
Turn off the heat, stir, and let melt completely.
Sift together the flour, baking powder, and salt. Set aside.
In a large heatproof mixing bowl set over simmering water, whisk the eggs, sugar, and vanilla until the sugar dissolves.
Transfer to the large bowl of an electric mixer, on high speed, using paddle or beaters, beat until pale yellow.
Lower speed to medium, scrape in the chocolate mixture, and beat until well mixed.
On low speed, gradually add flour mixture and beat just until combined.
Add 1 cup of walnuts and again, on low speed, beat just until combined.
Scrape into prepared pan and sprinkle remaining walnuts over top of cake.
Bake until edges of cake pull away from sides of pan and a toothpick inserted into center of cake comes out clean, 40 to 45 minutes.
Cool on wire rack.
To serve, cut the brownies into 9 squares, each about 2 1/2 inches.
Serve as is or with softly whipped cream or ice cream of your choice.
Yield: 9 servings

Why do people use a fraudulent company like CarFax when they know that their info is flawed?

2007-06-01T09:01:00.000-07:00

Carfax claims its search service is "your best protection against buying a used car with costly, hidden problems." But in their suit, Tennessee attorneys Frank Watson and David McLaughlin charge that Carfax's ads promise more than it can deliver. Carfax fails to disclose the limitations of its database, they said.

McLaughlin and Watson charge that auto dealer Mid-South Motors purchased a 1995 BMW 525i from another wholesaler in 2002 after buying a CARFAX report that showed no ?salvage? brands and no police accident or damage disclosure records.

Keira Knightley

2007-06-01T08:55:00.000-07:00

Her breakthrough role, however, came when she was still in her teens in the form of writer-director Gurinder Chadha's unlikely sleeper hit "Bend It Like Beckham" (2002) as part of a pair of soccer-obsessed teen gal pals who dream of careers kicking like soccer superstar David Beckham. Knightley quickly capitalized on the attention she garnered as the second banana in the warm, quirky film and was snatched up by Disney for the big screen blockbuster "Pirates of the Caribbean" (2003), loosely based on the beloved theme park attraction, in which she played Elizabeth Swann, the daughter of a governor who teams with rogue pirate and unlikely ally (Johhny Depp) and a dashing love interest (Orlando Bloom) to cross blades with evil marauders led by the villainous Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush)—she would later reprise the role for a pair of sequels shot back-to-back in 2005. The actress was also used to terrific effect in writer-director Richard Curtis' "Love Actually" (2003) as a bride who realizes her groom's best man is madly in love with her.

Next, Knightley's athletic frame and acting intensity were put to good use in the action-minded "King Arthur" (2004), a "demystified" and supposedly historically correct interpretation of the myth of the English King in which she played Queen Guinevere as a blue war paint-sporting warrior chieftess. She followed up with a turn in the mysterioso thriller "The Jacket" (2005) playing the woman who may hold the key to the salvation of an amnesiac man (Adrien Brody) who envisions their meeting in the future. The actress, who seemed to be even more confident with each role, took center stage as the central figure character in director Tony Scott's hyperkinetic "Domino" (2005), playing Domino Harvey, the real-life daughter of actor Lawrence Harvey who defied her Beverly Hills upbringing and early career as a model to become a resourceful, tough-as-nails bounty hunter. Knightley delivered a dynamic performance, but it was frequently undercut by Scott's overly stylized direction. Her final 2005 film was a refreshingly lively adaptation of Jane Austen's classic "Pride and Prejudice," which cast Knightley as the tale's bright and strong-willed heroine Elizabeth Bennett, a role that allowed much of the actress' coltish personal charm and winsome pluck to shine through. She was honored with several award nominations for Best Actress, including a Golden Globe and Academy Award.

Knightley started 2006 on a high note when she co-starred in “Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest” (2006), a harrowing, energetic and worthy addition to the swashbuckling franchise. She revived her love-torn character, Elizabeth Swann, to join Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) and the swaggering, but effete Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp) in a quest to find a long-lost treasure containing the heart of Davey Jones, undead captain of the fabled Flying Dutchman. “Dead Man’s Chest” went on to break several box office records, including biggest single-day gross and biggest opening weekend ever, paving the way for the third installment, “Pirates of the Caribbean 3,” which was shot simultaneously with the second.

Also Credited As: Kiera KnightleyBorn: Kiera Knightley on 03/26/1985 in Teddington, London, EnglandJob Titles: ActressFamily
Brother: Caleb Knightley. born c. 1979
Father: Will Knightley.
Mother: Sharman McDonald.
Significant Others
Companion: Del Synnott. actor; met in 2001, while working together on "Princess Of Thieves"; split November 2003
Companion: Jamie Dornan. model; met at a Manhattan photo shoot in August 2003; began dating in 2004; announced split August 10, 2005.
Companion: Rupert Friend. met while co-starring in "Pride & Prejudice"; began dating December 2005

Holidays in Gran Canaria

2007-05-31T01:09:00.000-07:00

Best for...
Beautiful beaches, a lively nightlife and wildly diverse scenery, Gran Canaria is a paradise for young people and families...

Boasting a variety of resorts and facilities, Gran Canaria has something to offer all ages and types of holidaymaker. Families will love the island's soft sandy beaches, warm blue waters and family-orientated activities, while couples seeking a romantic hideaway will enjoy the pretty marinas and flower-filled walkways. If bustling beach resorts are more your thing, you'll be more than satisfied with the wealth and variety of evening entertainment found in Gran Canaria's liveliest resorts, which are renowned for their party days and party nights.

What to do…
With year-round sunshine Gran Canaria is a popular winter sun destination though temperatures peak in the summer months. Five popular beach resorts - Puerto de Mogan, Playa del Ingles, Puerto Rico, Playa Amadores and Maspalomas are the highlights of the island.

Just an hour from the airport Puerto de Mogan is a picturesque working fishing village that has earned the name 'Little Venice' thanks to its tiny canals, ornate walkways and numerous waterfront restaurants. It makes a great getaway for families and couples looking for a relaxing escape with its attractive marina and quaint craft shops though for those who prefer a more bustling atmosphere there are ferries throughout the day to the livelier Puerto Rico.

With its busy sandy beaches Puerto Rico is unquestionably the most energetic area of Gran Canaria with a number of beach bars and stay-late restaurants as well as a buzzing commercial centre that is ideal for tax-free shopping. The area is extremely popular with the British and this is reflected in the restaurants and facilities available.

International dining is popular in both Playa del Ingles and Maspalomas. The island's resorts cater for every taste from Chinese to Italian, as well as many traditional dishes including fresh seafood and tapas. This is accentuated within the Yumbo Centre at Playa del Ingles, which has many mini-markets, bars, gift shops and cafes. This centre also caters heavily for the gay travel market and is known for its very lively entertainment 24hrs a day. The area also has a beautiful, golden sand beach that blends into the spectacular sand dunes of Maspalomas, which is the ideal setting for secluded sunbathing backed by the Charca da Maspalomas, a protected nature reserve and lagoon. There are also a number of fairground attractions to keep the family busy at Holiday World along with tenpin bowling, Aquasur's waterpark and an eighteen-hole golf course.

Playa Amadores is neatly situated between Puerto Rico and Puerto de Mogan and has arguably the most idyllic beach on the island as well as watersports and fishing facilities, though it should be avoided by those with walking difficulties due to its steep hills

Guide to student banking and finance - part 1 of 2

2007-05-31T01:06:00.000-07:00

The importance of a budget
Pre-preparing a budget may help you keep a tight grip on your finances. It's crucial to take EVERYTHING into account as money will be extremely tight. Think beyond the obvious major outlays such as rent, bills, books and food and think about the smaller expenses that will quickly add-up. Think about the costs of using your mobile phone (including texts), printing, photo-copying, using public transport and factor in those inevitable night-outs. The more you can plan for the better.

Budgeting is a vital tool not just at university, but in life. Thinking ahead and sticking closely to your plan is crucial if you are to avoid student debt.

Work out your cost of living
A little bit of mathematics can go a long way and a neat calculation can help you prepare for university life. Here is what we recommend that you consider:

Income for term - This will include parental contributions, a student loan (usually about £1,250) and a wage from a part-time job.
Term expenditure - This will include rent (usually about £800), books, clothes, CDs, etc - larger sums that you will spend over the course of a term.
Weekly expenditure - This should factor in the essentials and non-essentials, so food, leisure, travel, household bills and more.
Firstly add up the income and then add up your term expenditure. Also calculate your weekly expenditure over the course of a term - there are normally twelve weeks in a term. Once you have the three totals worked out, add the two expenditure totals together and subtract them from your income. The total will be the money you have left after all these costs are factored in. Consequently you might wish to reduce certain costs based on these results - you could decide to cut out the odd night out or spend a little less on leisure to keep yourself within a budget. Always reserve some cash for emergencies.

Part-time work
Though many like to claim that students are work-shy the opposite is often true as many young people hold down part-time jobs to ease financial worries in addition to dealing with their studies. Of course work should never come ahead of study, but if you can cope with perhaps a weekend job or even work through the holidays it is a great way to boost your income.

Best and Worst U.S. Housing Markets

2007-05-31T01:00:00.000-07:00

Southern metros also boasted gains. In San Antonio, prices went up 11.2%, and Austin, Tex., prices climbed 5.4%. Charlotte, N.C., and Raleigh, N.C., rose 6.4% and 6.3%, and Richmond, Va., and Norfolk, Va., improved 6.2% and 5.9%.

"What we're seeing now are the areas which still have a strong economy, but didn't have the overheated prices [during the housing boom], are the ones holding on strong now," says Kermit Baker, a senior research fellow at Harvard University's Joint Center for Housing Studies.

In the Northeast, the New York City metropolitan area turned in a steady 1% growth rate, and smaller metros like Albany, N.Y.; Trenton, N.J.; and Allentown Pa.--which improved by 6.3%, 7.1% and 5.8% respectively--helped overcome Boston's continuing slump to lift the Northeast to a 1.2% overall price growth, making it the only region in the black.

Now the bad news.
Cloudy Skies

Median home prices in Florida are down, according to NAR: Tampa by 2%, and Sarasota, Palm Bay and Daytona by an average of 9%. Overall, Florida prices plunged 25%, making the Sunshine State not so sunny. Miami, however, which had been hamstrung early in the housing downturn, improved by 2%. The rally may be tenuous however, as 23% of Miami housing loans are subprime, according to First American LoanPerformance, a mortgage data provider.

"We've had 30 subprime lenders go under, which leads to a tightening of credit," says Jonathan Miller, president of Miller Samuel, a New York-based real estate appraisal and consultancy firm of lenders nationwide. "That adds one more barrier to transactions, something that couldn't have come at a more delicate time for the housing market. On a national level, there are a lot of markets which are going to have some problems."

The Gulf Coast, where home prices had roared back at a double-digit clip the year following Hurricane Katrina, is one such market. Biloxi, Miss., grew by 15.7%, and Baton Rouge, La., by 9.7%, but the subprime hammer came down on New Orleans, where a 20% delinquency rate on subprime loans contributed to an 11% drop in home values, the NAR reports.

Worse News To Come?

For many markets, things may get worse before they get better. Nationwide, prices fell by 6.6%, a number that makes sense at this point in the housing cycle, experts say.

"When housing prices slip, nothing really changes until you try to sell, which is what we've had happen in the last couple of months," says Miller. "I don't think the housing slowdown has fully hit the national economy yet."

Overexpansion was a problem for most metro areas. Homeowner vacancy rates stood at 2.8% in the first quarter of this year, a statistically significant rise from the 2.1% rate a year ago and the 1.7% average between 1995 and 2005, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.

Those high inventory numbers flatten prices and make new development less lucrative.

"It's becoming more difficult to put together financing for new development projects," says Miller. "That'll actually provide some constraint on supply, but that's a couple years down the road. You figure the lead on new development is probably two years, so it's going to be a couple years before units stop coming off the conveyor belt."

Moving forward, there is concern surrounding the strength of the national macro economy. In the first quarter of 2007, growth came in at a disappointing 1.3%--hampered by 4% inflation--but the Federal Reserve predicts growth between 2.5% and 3% for the remainder of 2007.

"We do have a massive inventory correction, which will happen a lot easier and a lot less painfully if it continues to happen during an economic expansion," says Baker. "The fear is now that even though the direct housing hit was absorbed, the indirect hit could be serious too. We're into that now, but it doesn't look like it's enough to throw the economy into recession."

Some might disagree. Fears about the ripple effect of the housing market have traders particularly bearish.

The S&P/Case-Shiller housing futures market on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange is based on repeat sales of homes across 10 markets ranging from Boston to San Diego. There, traders are betting on a 4.5% decline from now until next year.

WITTY ANSWER TO 'HOW ARE YOU?' MAKES SOME PEOPLE FEEL FINE

2007-05-30T02:55:00.000-07:00

So, I make a game of it. Unlike the greeter who blurts out the salutation without thinking, I listen and am prepared with several responses. For "How ya doin'?" I answer, "Not so good. My wife and oldest son and I just got out of three months in rehab for peanut butter addiction. I was a two-jar-a-day man myself. My boy had it even worse -- three jars of the hard stuff, crunchy!"

When asked, "What's up?" I'm inclined to respond, "My blood pressure, cholesterol and body mass index!" -- DAVE IN MARSHALL, WIS.

DEAR DAVE: Many readers who wrote to comment on that letter said they were perplexed at how "How are you?" has essentially replaced the greeting "Hello." And they were eager to share the quips they use to answer that rhetorical question. Read on:

DEAR ABBY: I have an alternative to the answer you gave to "Fine, Thank You" that I often use.

I'm a recovering alcoholic. When someone who knows I'm in AA asks me how I'm doing, my favorite reply is, "I'm walking, breathing and sober -- anything beyond that is gravy."

Another favorite I often use with people who don't know I'm in AA is, "Well, I woke up on this side of the grass, so I must be doing pretty well!" -- SHIRLEY IN PENNSYLVANIA

DEAR ABBY: I have been having a lot of fun with this response to the "How are you?" question. I say, "I can't answer that." Expecting the worst, most people ask me why. That's when I say, "Because of the Medical Privacy Act!" Everyone has a good laugh and is relieved not to have had to listen to a list of my ailments. -- HAPPY BOB IN KIMBOLTON, OHIO

DEAR ABBY: I learned some years ago the power of a positive attitude. When an acquaintance asks how I am, I set the tone for my own day by answering, "I'm fabulous, thanks! How are you?"

You know the old "fake it 'til you feel it" philosophy? That's why I originally started doing it, but it has paid off for me because I receive positive energy in return. Not only do I actually feel happier after the interaction, but it's difficult for someone else to respond negatively to your smile. -- COLLEEN IN PORT COQUITLAM, BRITISH COLUMBIA

DEAR ABBY: My reply? "I'm better on the inside than I look on the outside!" -- JOYCE IN CONVERSE, TEXAS

DEAR ABBY: I once heard this response: "Vertical and ventilating!" I still laugh when I think of it. -- DOC IN CHARLESTON, S.C.

DEAR ABBY: My favorite response is one I get from a friend: "All monitored systems are functional." -- ED IN SAN JOSE

Miss Japan crowned Miss Universe 2007

2007-05-30T02:48:00.000-07:00

Dressed in a black, red and purple Japanese-style gown, Riyo Mori nervously grabbed the hands of first runner-up, Natalia Guimaraes of Brazil, just before the winner was announced. Then she threw her hands up and covered her mouth, overcome with emotion.

But she gathered herself together enough to catch the diamond-and-pearl-studded headpiece valued at $250,000 as it slipped off her head when Miss Universe 2006 Zuleyka Rivera of Puerto Rico crowned her. Mori immediately placed it back on her head.

The last time Japan won the pageant was in 1959 when Akiko Kojima became the first Miss Universe from Asia.

"She is an amazing champion, an amazing woman and I hear that they go totally insane in Japan, so that's good," said Donald Trump, who co-owns the pageant with NBC.

Miss USA Rachel Smith, who slipped and fell to the floor during the evening gown competition and was jeered by the Mexican audience during the interview phase, was the contest's fourth runner-up.

Mori, from the small town of Shizuoka at the base of Mount Fuji, won the cheers of the Mexico City audience when she opened her interview, saying 'Hola, Mexico!'

"I learned how to always be happy, be patient and to be positive, and this is what I want to teach to the next generation," she said during the interview competition.

The daughter of a dance school operator, Mori said her grandmother told her as a child that she wanted her to be Miss Japan before she turned 20.

"From the very beginning, I entered the competition with high hopes and an unswerving determination to make this dream a reality," she said in a pre-competition interview.

She wants to someday open an international dance school in Tokyo.

"Right now I am only 20 years old, so I'm really excited about what I'm going to be able to do at this age to benefit society," Mori said after winning.

Smith was booed during her interview and several audience members chanted "Mexico! Mexico!" until she spoke in Spanish, saying "Buenas noches Mexico. Muchas gracias!" which earned her applause. Mexico has a fierce rivalry with its northern neighbor.

Also finishing in the top five were second runner-up Ly Jonaitis of Venezuela and third runner-up Honey Lee of Korea.

The winner travels the world for a year on behalf of charities and pageant sponsors.

The 15 finalists from a field of 77 contestants were announced early in Monday's show. They were picked last week during preliminary judging in the contest's swimsuit, evening gown and interview categories. Their names were not announced until Monday, allowing all 77 to be introduced to the television audience.

As soon as the final 15 had been selected, they immediately strutted across the stage in animal-print bikinis for the swimsuit competition. After the evening gown competition, five contestants were eliminated, and the judges chose the winner from the five remaining.

Missing from this year's contest was Miss Sweden, whose country is one of the few to win the crown three times. Isabel Lestapier Winqvist, 20, dropped out because many Swedes say the competition does not represent the modern woman.

Hours before the pageant began, dozens of protesters held a mock ceremony in downtown Mexico City that featured "Miss Marijuana," "Miss Sexual Health," "Miss Human Rights" and other candidates with obscenities written across their sashes. The group yelled "Neither ugly nor beautiful, should a woman be considered an object!"

Top 9 Things To Do in Miami, Florida

2007-05-30T02:41:00.000-07:00

1) Everglades
With 1.5 million acres of swamps, saw-grass prairies and sub-tropical jungles, Everglades National Park is one of the most unusual public parks in the United States. Located on the southern tip of Florida, the park is home to 14 rare and endangered species, including the American Crocodile, the Florida Panther and the West Indian Manatee. A large portion of the park is primitive, explored only by adventurists and researchers – but visitors have ample opportunity to walk, camp and canoe.
2) South Beach
South Beach is the quintenssential Miami hot spot. From shopping to partying, this area of Miami Beach is well-known for being a trendy locale. In the linked article, we outline a weekend trip to this fabulous destination

3) Miami Metrozoo
Miami MetroZoo is fast becoming one of the best zoos in the nation. Its climate allows it to keep a wide variety of animals from Asia, Australia and Africa like no other zoo in the country. One of the first free-range zoos in the country, the exhibits are entirely cageless. Animals are grouped according to their geographic territory and animals that live together peacefully in the wild are placed in exhibits together.
4) Seaquarium
The Miami Seaquarium is located right in the middle of the tourist area, on the causeway between downtown Miami and Miami Beach. It's a fabulous stop where you can witness an outdoor aquarium experience that's only possible in our tropical climate. Be sure to budget enough time to spend at least half a day there!
5) Coral Castle
Coral Castle is truly a monument to the uniqueness of Miami! This attractions was built by a Latvian-born Miami resident named Ed Leedskalnin as a monument to his lover. After 28 years of effort, he introduced his 1100-ton coral creation to the world. It's a bit of a trip from downtown, but well worth the time.
6) Parrot Jungle Island
Parrot Jungle offers visitors a fun, educational opportunity to get an up-close look at tropical birds in replicas of their natural habitats. The attraction routinely hosts field trips and offers frequent educational programs.
7) Miami Children's Museum
If you have kids (or just like to act like them!), the Miami Children's Museum is a must-see destination. Their motto of "Play, Learn, Imagine, Create" shines through in the wide variety of interactive exhibits that allow children to explore everything from a supermarket to a television studio, picking up valuable lessons along the way.
8) Miami Museum of Science
Check out the latest kid-friendly exhibits at the Miami Museum of Science. You're bound to find a learning adventure for the whole family. The museum is home to the Bird of Prey Research Center and the Weintraub Observatory.
9) Vizcaya
No visit to Miami is complete without a stop at the historical 50-acre Vizcaya estate. This European-style mansion offers a glimpse at life in turn-of-the-century South Florida. It's also an extremely popular venue for galas, weddings and other entertainment events.

America's Top 50 Restaurants 2006

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This list is proof that American food as served in all 50 of our top restaurants has never been so exciting. Or so new: More than half of these restaurants are making their debut on the list — you'll recognize them by the star.

Below, the top 50, in order:

1. Alinea – Chicago, IL*
2. Chez Panisse – Berkeley, CA
3. The French Laundry/Per Se – Yountville, CA; New York, NY
4. Spago – Beverly Hills, CA
5. Joël Robuchon at the Mansion – Las Vegas, NV*
6. La Rêve – San Antonio, TX
7. Masa – New York, NY*
8. Alan Wong's Restaurant – Honolulu, HI
9. Daniel – New York, NY
10. Le Bernardin – New York, NY
11. Magnolia Grill – Durham, NC
12. Michel Richard Citronelle – Washington, D.C.
13. Charlie Trotter's – Chicago, IL
14. Arrows – Ogunquit, ME
15. Cyrus – Healdsburg, CA*
16. Striped Bass – Philadelphia, PA*
17. Babbo – New York, NY
18. Locke-Ober – Boston, MA*
19. Canlis – Seattle, WA
20. L'Auberge Carmel – Carmel, CA*
21. Bartolotta Ristorante di Mare – Las Vegas, NV*
22. Restaurant August – New Orleans, LA*
23. The Inn at Little Washington – Washington, VA
24. The Dining Room in the Ritz-Carlton Buckhead – Atlanta, GA*
25. Vetri – Philadelphia, PA*
26. Fore Street – Portland, ME
27. Jean Georges – New York, NY
28. Higgins – Portland, OR*
29. Da Marco – Houston, TX*
30. La Belle Vie – Minneapolis, MN*
31. Parker's New American Bistro – Cleveland, OH
32. Michy's – Miami, FL*
33. Frasca – Boulder, CO*
34. Gramercy Tavern – New York, NY
35. Providence – Los Angeles, CA*
36. Restaurant Guy Savoy – Las Vegas, NV*
37. Zuni Café – San Francisco, CA
38. Urasawa – Beverly Hills, CA*
39. Bacchanalia – Atlata, GA*
40. Sanford – Milwaukee, WI
41. York Street – Dallas, TX*
42. Manresa – Los Gatos, CA*
43. No. 9 Park – Boston, MA*
44. Trattoria Nostrani – Santa Fe, NM*
45. Cafe Juanita – Kirkland, WA*
46. Paley's Place – Portland, OR*
47. Lantern Restaurant – Chapel Hill, NC*
48. L'Etoile – Madison, WI
49. Herbsaint – New Orleans, LA*
50. Nana – Dallas, TX*

— Gourmet, October 2006

Introduction to New York City, NY

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The most beguiling city in the world, New York is an adrenaline-charged, history-laden place that holds immense romantic appeal for visitors. Wandering the streets here, you'll cut between buildings that are icons to the modern age – and whether gazing at the flickering lights of the midtown skyscrapers as you speed across the Queensboro bridge, experiencing the 4am half-life downtown, or just wasting the morning on the Staten Island ferry, you really would have to be made of stone not to be moved by it all. There's no place quite like it.

While the events of September 11, 2001, which demolished the World Trade Center, shook New York to its core, the populace responded resiliently under the composed aegis of then-Mayor Rudy Giuliani. Until the attacks, many New Yorkers loved to hate Giuliani, partly because they saw him as committed to making their city too much like everyone else's. To some extent he succeeded, and during the late Nineties New York seemed cleaner, safer, and more liveable, as the city took on a truly international allure and shook off the more notorious aspects to its reputation. However, the maverick quality of New York and its people still shines as brightly as it ever did. Even in the aftermath of the World Trade Center's collapse, New York remains a unique and fascinating city – and one you'll want to return to again and again.

You could spend weeks in New York and still barely scratch the surface, but there are some key attractions – and some pleasures – that you won't want to miss. There are the different ethnic neighborhoods, like lower Manhattan's Chinatown and the traditionally Jewish Lower East Side (not so much anymore); and the more artsy concentrations of SoHo, TriBeCa, and the East and West Villages. Of course, there is the celebrated architecture of corporate Manhattan, with the skyscrapers in downtown and midtown forming the most indelible images. There are the museums, not just the Metropolitan and MoMA, but countless other smaller collections that afford weeks of happy wandering. In between sights, you can eat just about anything, at any time, cooked in any style; you can drink in any kind of company; and sit through any number of obscure movies. The more established arts – dance, theater, music – are superbly catered for; and New York's clubs are as varied and exciting as you might expect. And for the avid consumer, the choice of shops is vast, almost numbingly exhaustive in this heartland of the great capitalist dream

Ad Track: Marketers bet on lucky 777; that's July 7, 2007

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Hotels, casinos and even Wal-Mart Stores have seven-centric promotions for the seventh day of the seventh month of 2007.

Consumers love numerological lore, says consumer-behavior expert Michael Solomon, and that gives marketers an opportunity.

The number seven has significance in many religions (such as the seven sacraments in the Roman Catholic faith). It also has more playful, longtime cultural and superstitious associations with all things lucky, including gambling.

"Casinos and lotteries should be big beneficiaries that day," says Ken Bernhardt, a marketing professor at Georgia State University. He also expects "this is your lucky day" sales by retailers.

FIND MORE STORIES IN: TV | Las Vegas | Venetian | Saks | Wedding Chapel | Laura Petrecca
Wal-Mart's take is a 777-themed contest promoting wedding wares. For its "Lucky in Love Wedding Search," Wal-Mart will give seven couples a July 7 wedding ceremony and reception valued at $5,000 in the garden and lawn area of their local Supercenter.

"The cost of a wedding these days is astronomical," says Wal-Mart spokeswoman Karen Burk. The promotion "is a way for us to show the value of our products for a wedding — and how you can keep costs down."

Wal-Mart will set up a tent and serve buffet-style food, such as cheese, sandwich and veggie platters from its deli, as well as wedding cake from its bakery. Stationery company Gartner Studios partnered in the promotion, which had more than 400 entries, to provide invitations, decorations and favors, says head of business development Kathi Mishek.

Others seizing the day:

•Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino.

The Las Vegas hotel will host a huge group wedding at 7 p.m. that Saturday. The $1,777 package includes a buffet, an open bar and a KC and the Sunshine Band concert for the happy couple and two guests. "It became pretty clear to us that the date was special and we needed to try to take advantage of the demand," says Scott Voeller, the hotel's head of marketing. So far, more than 100 couples bought in, but Voeller hopes for more: "How fun would it be to get 777 couples?"

•Ritz-Carlton hotels.

The company's New York City Central Park location has a Lucky Number 7 July 7 wedding package with a reception for 77, a seven-tier wedding cake and a seven-night honeymoon at any Ritz in the world for $77,777. No takers yet.

The Ritz in Henderson, Nev., has a Seven Ways of Wonderment package for $7,707 that includes two nights on the seventh floor, seven hours of spa treatments and a $777 credit at Neiman Marcus.

It also has a Savory Sensations of Seven package, beginning at $777, with an overnight stay, a seven-course dinner and a 70-minute spa treatment for two. "We wanted to capitalize on the kitsch of this auspicious date," says spokeswoman Marina Nicola. It has had bookings for the $777 deal, but no $7,707 packages have sold yet.

•The Venetian Resort Hotel Casino.

The Las Vegas hotel hosts about 20 weddings on a typical Saturday, but for July 7, says wedding services manager Darlene Wilson, "Seventy-seven weddings is our goal."

More than 50 couples have signed up for the $800 to $7,500 weddings. The Venetian is adding new ceremony sites and will extend hours at its existing venues.

"We've received such a high demand for 777 that we're already preparing for 888," Wilson says.

Ditto for Ritz. That date could be big for Las Vegas, which attracts many Asian visitors. Eight is strongly associated with prosperity in many cultures.

Both dates should be luckier for marketers than June 6, 2006: 666 is the "number of the beast" or anti-christ in the Bible's Book of Revelation. Says Nicola, "We didn't have any weddings" that day.

Ask the Ad Team

Q: Does someone own the famous ad phrase "As Seen On TV" or the familiar logo that has that phrase in a TV-shaped red box?

A:

The words and red logo are in the public domain. Anyone who wants to put it on a package or use it in their business, can without a fee or infringing on someone's trademark.

Hundreds of independent stores around the USA use the name or logo. They generally offer goods also sold via what's called "direct response TV" — ads and infomercials with "1-800" sales numbers.

Many websites also sell such merchandise, but the name AsSeenOnTV.com is owned by SeenOnTV of Rochester, N.Y. Daniel Fasano bought the domain name 10 years ago for $5 million. The site, which had sales of $5 million last year, offers 1,400 products from his firm and others. Not all actually have been "seen on TV." Among those that have: SeenOnTV's Pasta Pronta, a tubular pasta cooker, and Clever Clasp, a magnetic necklace clasp, made by Idea Village.

To Saks, with love:

A giant shoe floor opening in August at Manhattan's Saks Fifth Avenue will have a chocolate cafe, an on-site cobbler, a VIP room — and its own ZIP code, 10022-SHOE. Saks will use the custom ZIP code, courtesy of the U.S. Postal Service, in its marketing, spokeswoman Lesley Langsam Kennedy says.

But who'd actually correspond with a shoe department? "People write all the time," Kennedy says. "They send thank-you notes."

Even a caveman could watch:

Bud.TV
ABC's Caveman is based on the characters from the Geico ads.

Trade magazine TelevisionWeek has posted on its website teaser clips of many new fall TV shows, including ABC's Caveman, a series based on Geico's ad characters. Its clip shows the hairy humanoids debating the politically correct use of Cro-Magnon. See it at TVWeek.com.

Airing grievances:

Looking to draw attention to the dismal state of air travel, Virgin Atlantic posted oversize air-sickness bags in New York, San Francisco, Boston and Washington.

Copy on the 3-foot "barf bags" describes shoddy service (except on Virgin!) and states: "Flying shouldn't make you sick. Or tired. Or sick and tired. Unless you had a long night out at the pub."

City dwellers have a taste for the gag. "People are stealing the bags … and put them in their apartments. It's like art," says Jeff Steinhour, a partner at ad agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky, which created the bags.

Rock on (not):

British shoemaker Dr. Martens booted Saatchi & Saatchi, London after an agency employee leaked on the Web unauthorized ads showing dead rock stars Kurt Cobain, Joe Strummer, Sid Vicious and Joey Ramone wearing angel robes and Docs.

Shanghai

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The two Chinese characters in the name "Shanghai" (see left) literally mean "on"/"top" and "sea". The local Shanghainese pronunciation of Shanghai is /zɑ̃.'he/, while the Standard Mandarin pronunciation in Hanyu Pinyin is Shànghǎi. The earliest occurrence of this name dates from the Song Dynasty (11th century), at which time there was already a river confluence and a town with this name in the area. There are disputes as to how the name should be interpreted, but official local histories have consistently said that it means "the upper reaches of the sea" (海之上洋). However, another reading, especially in Mandarin, also suggests the sense of "go onto the sea," which is consistent with the seaport status of the city. The more poetic name for Shanghai switches the order of the two characters, i.e., Haishang (海上), and is often used for terms related to Shanghainese art and culture. In the West, Shanghai has also been spelled Schanghai (in German), Sjanghai (in Dutch), Xangai (in Portuguese) and Changhaï (in French), but since the 1990s the Hanyu Pinyin spelling of "Shanghai" has become universal in the West. In Japanese, Shanghai is written using the same two Chinese characters (上海), and the Japanese pronunciation Shanhai (シャンハイ) is an approximation of the Mandarin pronunciation.

Shanghai's abbreviations in Chinese are Hù (沪) and Shēn (申). The former is derived from the ancient name Hu Du (沪渎) of the river now known as Suzhou Creek. The latter is derived from the name of Chunshen Jun (春申君), a nobleman of the Chu Kingdom (楚国) in the 3rd century B.C. whose territory included the Shanghai area and has locally been revered as a hero. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use the character Shēn (申) in their names. Shanghai is also commonly called Shēnchéng (申城, "City of Shēn").

The city has had various nicknames in English, including "Paris of the East", "Queen of the Orient", and even "The Whore of Asia", a reference to the widespread corruption, vice, drugs, and prostitution in the 1920s and 1930s.

History
Main article: History of Shanghai

[edit] Pre-nineteenth century
Before the formation of Shanghai city, Shanghai was part of Songjiang county (松江縣), governed by Suzhou prefecture (蘇州府). From the time of the Song Dynasty (AD 960-1279), Shanghai gradually became a busy seaport, outgrowing its original political jurisdictions. For instance, Songjiang (淞江) today is one of 18 districts within Shanghai.

German map of Shanghai from 1888A city wall was built in AD 1553, which is generally accepted as the start of the city of Shanghai. However, before the nineteenth century, Shanghai was not considered a major city of China. Therefore, compared to most other major Chinese cities today, there are few ancient Chinese landmarks to be found in the city. The few cultural landmarks to be found are very ancient and typically date to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. This is mostly due to the fact that present-day Shanghai is within the historic cultural center of the Wu Kingdom (AD 222-280).

During the Qianlong era of the Qing Dynasty, Shanghai became an important regional port for the Yangtze and Huangpu rivers. It also became a major seaport for the nearby Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces, although overseas commerce was still forbidden at that time. A historically important area of this era is Wujiaochang (五角场) (now in the Yangpu District), the foundation of the city center. Around the end of the Qianlong era, Shiliupu (十六铺) (now in the Huangpu District) became the largest port in East Asia.

Nineteenth to early twentieth century
The importance of Shanghai grew radically in the nineteenth century, as the city's strategic position at the mouth of the Yangtze River made it an ideal location for trade with the West.

During the First Opium War in the early nineteenth century, British forces temporarily held Shanghai. The war ended with the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing, which saw the treaty ports, Shanghai included, opened for international trade. The Treaty of the Bogue signed in 1843, and the Sino-American Treaty of Wangsia signed in 1844 together saw foreign nations achieve extraterritoriality on Chinese soil, which officially lasted until 1943 but was essentially defunct by the late 1930s. From the twenties to the late 30s Shanghai was a so-called 'sin city'. Gangsters wielded a great deal of power and ran casinos and brothels.

The Taiping Rebellion broke out in 1850, and in 1853 Shanghai was occupied by a triad offshoot of the rebels, called the Small Swords Society. The fighting destroyed the countryside but left the foreigners' settlements untouched, and Chinese arrived seeking refuge. Although previously Chinese were forbidden to live in foreign settlements, 1854 saw new regulations drawn up making land available to Chinese. Land prices rose substantially.

Jiujiang Road, Shanghai, 1920s1854 also saw the first annual meeting of the Shanghai Municipal Council, created in order to manage the foreign settlements. In 1863, the British settlement, located along the western bank of the Huangpu river to the south of Suzhou creek (Huangpu district), and American settlement, located on the western bank of the Huangpu river and to the north of Suzhou creek (Hankou district) joined in order to form the International Settlement. The French opted out of the Shanghai Municipal Council, and instead maintained its own French Concession, located to the west of the International Settlement. This period saw a large influx of migrants from Europe and North America, who called themselves "Shanghighlanders".

The Sino-Japanese War fought 1894-95 over control of Korea concluded with the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which saw Japan emerge as an additional foreign power in Shanghai. Japan built the first factories in Shanghai, which were soon copied by other foreign powers to effect the emergence of Shanghai industry. Shanghai was then the biggest financial city in the Far East. Under the Republic of China, Shanghai was made a special city in 1927, and a municipality in May 1930. The Japanese Navy bombed Shanghai on January 28, 1932, nominally in an effort to crush down Chinese student protests of the Manchurian Incident and the subsequent Japanese occupation. The Chinese fought back in what was known as the January 28 Incident. The two sides fought to a standstill and a ceasefire was brokered in May. In the Second Sino-Japanese War, the city fell after the Battle of Shanghai in 1937, and was occupied until Japan's surrender in 1945. The International Settlement was occupied on 8 December 1941 with opposition from only the one remaining British gunboat stationed in the port and some Chinese irregulars.

During World War II
Shanghai had been a center for refugees as early as 1919 when large numbers of White Russians fleeing revolution and civil war took up residence there. Russians comprised the second largest foreign community in Shanghai (after the Japanese) and played an important role in the economy and policing of the International Settlement until the end of World War II.

During World War II, Shanghai became again a center for refugees from Europe. It was the only city in the world that was open unconditionally to the Jews at the time. As a result, approximately 32,000 Jews, who like the other foreign communities termed themselves "Shanghailanders," settled in the Chinese city. However, under pressure from their Nazi allies, the Japanese ghettoised the Jewish refugees in late 1941 in what came to be known as the Shanghai ghetto, and hunger and infectious diseases such as amoebic dysentery became rife. Nevertheless, the Japanese government refused Nazi requests to deport the Jewish population.

The Canidrome was once a ballroom/racetrack exclusive to Europeans in the 1930s. It became a slaughterhouse after the communist party marched into Shanghai.
Communist rule
On May 27, 1949, Communist Party of China controlled People's Liberation Army took control of Shanghai. It was one of the only two former Republic of China (ROC) municipalities not merged into neighbouring provinces over the next decade (the other being Beijing). It underwent a series of changes in the boundaries of its subdivisions, especially in the next decade.

In 1949, most foreign firms moved their offices from Shanghai to Hong Kong. Specifically North Point is where the largest concentration of emigrants would be found. One of the first actions taken by the communist party was to cleanup the portion of the population that were considered counter-revolutionaries. Mass executions took place with thousands slaughtered in the hands of the communist party. Places such as the Canidrome would transform from a greyhound racetrack/ballroom to a mass execution facilities[2][3].

During the 1950s and 1960s, Shanghai became an industrial center and center for revolutionary leftism. Yet, even during the most tumultuous times of the Cultural Revolution, Shanghai was able to maintain high economic productivity and relative social stability. In most of the history of the People's Republic of China (PRC), Shanghai has been the largest contributor of tax revenue to the central government compared with other Chinese provinces and municipalities. This came at the cost of severely crippling Shanghai's infrastructure and capital development. Its importance to China's fiscal well-being also denied it economic liberalizations that were started in the far southern provinces such as Guangdong during the mid-1980s. At that time Guangdong province paid nearly no taxes to the central government, and thus was perceived as fiscally expendable for experimental economic reforms. Shanghai was not permitted to initiate economic reforms until 1991.

Political power in Shanghai has traditionally been seen as a stepping stone to higher positions within the PRC central government. In the 1990s, there was what was often described as the politically right-of-center "Shanghai clique," which included the president of the PRC Jiang Zemin and the premier of the PRC Zhu Rongji. Starting in 1992, the central government under Jiang Zemin, a former Mayor of Shanghai, began reducing the tax burden on Shanghai and encouraging both foreign and domestic investment in order to promote it as the economic hub of East Asia and to encourage its role as gateway of investment to the Chinese interior. Since then it has experienced continuous economic growth of between 9–15%.

Politics and Administration
Politics
Main article: Politics of Shanghai

Shanghai municipal government building.Shanghai has been a political hub of China for many years. Many of China's top government officials in Beijing are known to have risen in Shanghai in the 1980s on a platform that was critical of the extreme leftism of the Cultural Revolution, giving them the tag "Shanghai Clique" during the 1990s. Many observers of Chinese politics view the more right-leaning Shanghai Clique as an opposing and competing faction of the current Chinese administration under President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao. Shanghai's top jobs, the Party Chief and the position of Mayor, have always been prominent on a national scale. Four Shanghai mayors eventually went on to take prominent Central Government positions, including former President Jiang Zemin and former Premier Zhu Rongji. The top administrative jobs are always appointed directly by the Central Government.

The current Shanghai government under Mayor Han Zheng has openly advocated transparency in the city's government. However, in previous years a complicated system of relationships between Shanghai's government, banks, and other civil institutions has been under scrutiny for corruption, motivated by faction politics in Beijing; these allegations from Beijing did not go anywhere until late 2006. Since Jiang's departure from office there has been a significant amount of clash between the local government in Shanghai and the Central People's Government, an evolving example of de facto Chinese federalism. The Shanghai government looks after almost all of the city's economic interests without interference from Beijing.

By 2006, Shanghai's actual level of autonomy has arguably surpassed that of any autonomous regions, raising alarm bells in Beijing. In September 2006, the Shanghai Communist Party Secretary Chen Liangyu, Shanghainese in origin and often clashing with central government officials, along with a number of his followers, were removed from their positions after a probe into the city's pension fund. Over a hundred investigators, sent by the Central Government, reportedly uncovered clues of money diversion from the city's pension fund to unapproved loans and investments. Chen's abrupt removal is viewed by many Chinese as a political manoeuvre by President Hu Jintao to further secure his power in the country, and retain administrative centralism. In March 2007 the central government appointed Xi Jinping, who is not a Shanghai native, to become the Party Secretary, the most powerful office in the city

Beijing

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Names
Beijing (北京) literally means "Northern capital", in line with the common East Asian tradition whereby capital cities are explicitly named as such. Other cities similarly named include Nanjing (南京), China, meaning "southern capital"; Tokyo (東京), Japan, and Đông Kinh (東京, known to Europeans as Tonkin; now Hanoi), Vietnam, both meaning "eastern capital"; as well as Kyoto (京都), Japan, and Gyeongseong (京城; now Seoul), Korea, both meaning simply "capital".

Peking is the name of the city according to Chinese Postal Map Romanization, and the traditional customary name for Beijing in English. The term originated with French missionaries four hundred years ago and corresponds to an older pronunciation predating a subsequent sound change in Mandarin from [kʲ] to [tɕ][citation needed]. ([tɕ] is represented in pinyin as j, as in Beijing), and is still used in some languages (for example, the Portuguese name is Pequim).

In China, the city has had many names. Between 1368 and 1405, and again from 1928 [1] and 1949, it was known as Beiping (北平; Pinyin: Beiping; Wade-Giles: Pei-p'ing), literally "Northern Peace". On both occasions, the name changed — with the removal of the element meaning "capital" (jing or king, 京) — to reflect the fact the national capital had changed to Nanjing, the first time under the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, and the second time with the Kuomintang (KMT) government of the Republic of China, so that Peking was no longer the capital of China.

The Communist Party of China reverted the name to Beijing (Peking) in 1949 again in part to emphasize that Beijing had returned to its role as China's capital. The government of the Republic of China on Taiwan has never formally recognized the name change, and during the 1950s and 1960s it was common in Taiwan for Beijing to be called Beiping to imply the illegitimacy of the PRC. Today, almost all of Taiwan, including the ROC government, uses Beijing, although some maps of China from Taiwan still use the old name along with pre-1949 political boundaries.

Yanjing (燕京; Pinyin: Yānjīng; Wade-Giles: Yen-ching) is and has been another popular informal name for Beijing, a reference to the ancient State of Yan that existed here during the Zhou Dynasty. This name is reflected in the locally-brewed Yanjing Beer as well as Yenching University, an institution of higher learning that was merged into Peking University. During the Yuan Dynasty, Beijing was known as Khanbaliq which is the Cambuluc described in Marco Polo's accounts.

(The history section below outlines other historical names of Beijing.)

[edit] History

Remains of Beijing city wall, 2006Main article: History of Beijing
There were cities in the vicinities of Beijing by the 1st millennium BC, and the capital of the State of Yan, one of the powers of the Warring States Period (473-221 BC), Ji (薊/蓟), was established in present-day Beijing.

After the fall of the Yan, the subsequent Qin, Han, and Jin dynasties set-up local prefectures in the area. In Tang Dynasty it became the headquarter for Fanyang jiedushi, the virtual military governor of current northern Hebei area. An Lushan launched An Shi Rebellion from here in 755. This rebellion is often regarded as a turning point of Tang dynasty, as the central government began to lose the control of the whole country.

In 936, the Later Jin Dynasty (936-947) of northern China ceded a large part of its northern frontier, including modern Beijing, to the Khitan Liao Dynasty. In 938, the Liao Dynasty set up a secondary capital in what is now Beijing, and called it Nanjing (the "Southern Capital"). In 1125, the Jurchen Jin Dynasty annexed Liao, and in 1153 moved its capital to Liao's Nanjing, calling it Zhongdu (中都), "the central capital." Zhongdu was situated in what is now the area centred around Tianningsi, slightly to the southwest of central Beijing.

Mongol forces burned Zhongdu to the ground in 1215 and rebuilt it to the north of the Jin capital in 1267. In preparation for the conquest of all of China, Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty founder Kublai Khan made this his capital as Dadu (大都, Chinese for "grand capital"), Daidu to the Mongols or Khanbaliq (Turkic language for "City of the Khans")[1]. This site is known as Cambuluc in Marco Polo's accounts. Apparently, Kublai Khan, who wanted to become a Chinese emperor, established his capital at this location instead of more traditional sites in central China because it was closer to his power base in Mongolia. The decision of the Khan greatly enhanced the status of a city that had been situated on the northern fringe of China proper. Dadu was situated north of modern central Beijing. It centred on what is now the northern stretch of the 2nd Ring Road, and stretched northwards to between the 3rd and 4th Ring Roads. There are remnants of Mongol-era wall still standing.

After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368, the city was later rebuilt by the Ming Dynasty and Shuntian (順天) prefecture was established in the area around the city. In 1403, the third Ming Emperor Yongle moved the Ming capital from Nanjing (Nanking) to the renamed Beijing (Peking) (北京), the "northern capital", situated in the north. The capital was also known as Jingshi 京師, simply meaning capital. During the Ming Dynasty, Beijing took its current shape, and the Ming-era city wall served as the Beijing city wall until modern times, when it was pulled down and the 2nd Ring Road was built in its place.

It is believed that Beijing was the largest city in the world from 1425 to 1650 and from 1710 to 1825 [2].

The Forbidden City, home to the Emperors of the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Panorama view of the Forbidden City, home to the Emperors of the Ming and Qing Dynasties.The Forbidden City was constructed soon after that (1406-1420), followed by the Temple of Heaven (1420), and numerous other construction projects. Tiananmen, which has become a state symbol of the People's Republic of China and is featured on its emblem, was burned down twice during the Ming Dynasty and the final reconstruction was carried out in 1651.

After the Manchus overthrew the Ming Dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty in its place, Beijing remained China's capital throughout the Qing period. Just like during the preceding dynasty, Beijing was also known as Jingshi, which corresponded to the Manchu Gemun Hecen with the same meaning. It was the scene of the siege of the foreign legations during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900.

The Xinhai Revolution of 1911, aimed at replacing Qing rule with a republic, originally intended to establish its capital at Nanjing. After high-ranking Qing official Yuan Shikai forced the abdication of the Qing emperor in Beijing and ensured the success of the revolution, the revolutionaries in Nanjing accepted that Yuan should be the president of the new Republic of China, and that the capital should remain at Beijing.

Yuan gradually consolidated power, culminating in his declaration of a Chinese Empire in late 1915 with himself as emperor. The move was highly unpopular, and Yuan himself died less than a year later, ending his brief reign. China then fell under the control of regional warlords, and the most powerful factions fought frequent wars (the Zhili-Anhui War, the First Zhili-Fengtian War, and the Second Zhili-Fengtian War) to take control of the capital at Beijing.

Tiananmen Square as seen from the Tian'an Gate
Following the success of the Kuomintang's Northern Expedition which pacified the warlords of the north, Nanjing was officially made the capital of the Republic of China in 1928, and Beijing was renamed Beiping (Peip'ing) (北平), "northern peace" or "north pacified", to emphasize that the warlord government in Beijing was not legitimate.

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Beiping fell to Japan on 29 July 1937. During the occupation, the city was reverted to its former name, Beijing, and made the seat of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China, a puppet state that ruled the ethnic Chinese portions of Japanese-occupied North China. It was later merged into the larger Wang Jingwei Government based in Nanjing. With Japan's surrender in World War II, on 15 August 1945, however, Beijing's name was changed back to Beiping.

On January 31, 1949, during the Chinese Civil War, Communist forces entered Beijing without a fight. On October 1 of the same year, the Communist Party of China, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, announced in Tiananmen the creation of the People's Republic of China in Beijing. Just a few days earlier, the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference had decided that Beiping would be the capital of the new government, and that its name would be changed back to Beijing.

At the time of the founding of the People's Republic, Beijing Municipality consisted of just its urban area and immediate suburbs. The urban area was divided into many small districts inside what is now the 2nd Ring Road. Since then several surrounding counties have been incorporated into the Municipality, enlarging the limits of Beijing Municipality by many times and giving it its present shape. The Beijing city wall was torn down between 1965 and 1969 to make way for the construction of the 2nd Ring Road.

Beijing's Tiananmen SquareFollowing the economic reforms of Deng Xiaoping, the urban area of Beijing has expanded greatly. Formerly within the confines of the 2nd Ring Road and the 3rd Ring Road, the urban area of Beijing is now pushing at the limits of the recently-constructed 5th Ring Road and 6th Ring Road (under construction), with many areas that were formerly farmland now developed residential or commercial neighborhoods. A new commercial area has developed in the Guomao area, Wangfujing and Xidan have developed into flourishing shopping districts, while Zhongguancun has become a major center of electronics in China.

In recent years, the expansion of Beijing has also brought to the forefront some problems of urbanization, such as heavy traffic, poor air quality, the loss of historic neighborhoods, and significant influx of migrants from poorer regions of the country, especially rural areas.

Early 2005 saw the approval by government of a plan to finally stop the sprawling development of Beijing in all directions. Development of the Chinese capital would now proceed in two semicircular bands just outside of the city centre (both west and east) instead of being in concentric rings.

Beijing has been chosen to host the 2008 Summer Olympics, an event that has sparked nationalistic pride across China.

[edit] Geography and climate
Main article: Geography of Beijing

A simulated-color image of Beijing, taken by NASA's Landsat 7.Beijing is situated at the northern tip of the roughly triangular North China Plain which opens to the south and east of the city. Mountains to the north, northwest and west shield the city and northern China's agricultural heartland from the encroaching desert steppes. The northwestern part of the municipality, especially Yanqing County and Huairou District, are dominated by the Jundu Mountains, while the western part of the municipality is framed by the Xishan Mountains. The Great Wall of China, which stretches across the northern part of Beijing Municipality, made use of this rugged topography to defend against nomadic incursions from the steppes. Mount Dongling in the Xishan ranges and on the border with Hebei is the municipality's highest point, with an altitude of 2303 m. Major rivers flowing through the municipality include the Yongding River and the Chaobai River, part of the Hai River system, and flowing in a southerly direction. Beijing is also the northern terminus of the Grand Canal of China which was built across the North China Plain to Hangzhou. Miyun Reservoir, built on the upper reaches of the Chaobai River, is Beijing's largest reservoir, and crucial to its water supply.

The urban area of Beijing, located at 39°54′20″N, 116°23′29″E (39.9056, 116.3914), is situated in the south-central part of the municipality and occupies a small but expanding part of the municipality's area. It spreads out in bands of concentric ring roads, of which the fifth and outermost (the Sixth Ring Road; the numbering starts at 2) passes through several satellite towns. Tian'anmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace) and Tian'anmen Square are at the centre of Beijing, and are directly to the south of the Forbidden City, former residence of the emperors of China. To the west of Tian'anmen is Zhongnanhai, residence of the paramount leaders of the People's Republic of China. Running through central Beijing from east to west is Chang'an Avenue, one of Beijing's main thoroughfares.

The city's climate is a monsoon-influenced humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dwa), characterized by hot, humid summers due to the East Asian monsoon, and harshly cold, windy, dry winters that reflect the influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone. Average temperatures in January are at around -7 to -4 °C (19 to 24 °F), while average temperatures in July are at 25 to 26 °C (77 to 79 °F). Annual precipitation is over 600 mm, with 75% of that in summer. [3]

Great Wall of China

2007-05-29T08:36:00.000-07:00

The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring and Autumn Period, which began around the 8th century BC. During the Warring States Period from the 5th century BC to 221 BC, the states of Qi, Yan and Zhao all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and gravel between board frames.

Qin Shi Huang conquered all opposing states and unified China in 221 BC, establishing the Qin Dynasty. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords, he ordered the destruction of the wall sections that divided his empire along the former state borders. To protect the empire against intrusions by the Xiongnu people from the north, he ordered the building of a new wall to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire's new northern frontier. Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources. Stones from the mountains were used over mountain ranges, while rammed earth was used for construction in the plains. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin Dynasty walls. Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few sections remain today. Later, the Han, Sui, Northern and Jin dynasties all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders.

The Great Wall concept was revived again during the Ming Dynasty following the Ming army's defeat by the Mongols in the Battle of Tumu in 1449. The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper-hand over the Mongols after successive battles, and the long-drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire. The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the Mongols out by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge instead of incorporating the bend of the Huang He.

Unlike the earlier Qin fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls. Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strengthened.

Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Under the military command of Yuan Chonghuan, the Ming army held off the Manchus at the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass, preventing the Manchus from entering the Liaodong Peninsula and the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, when the gates of Shanhai Pass were opened by Wu Sangui, a rebel Ming border general. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing, and defeated the remaining Ming resistance, to establish the Qing Dynasty.

Under Qing rule, China's borders extended beyond the walls, and Mongolia was annexed into the empire, so construction and repairs on the Great Wall were discontinued.

Notable areas

A remote western section of the Great Wall, Jiayuguan Pass, GansuThe following three sections are in Beijing municipality, which were renovated and which are regularly visited by modern tourists:

• The “North Pass” of Juyongguan pass, known as the Badaling. When used by the Chinese to protect their land, this section of the wall has had many guards to defend China’s capital, Beijing. Made of stone and bricks from the hills, this portion of the Great Wall is 7.8 meters high and 5 meters wide.

• One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes. It runs 11 kilometers long, ranges from 5 to 8 meters in height, and 6 meters across the bottom, narrowing up to 5 meters across the top. Wangjinglou is one of Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, 980 meters above sea level.

• South East of Jinshanling, is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers (about 1.3 miles). It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east.

Another notable section lies near the eastern extremity of the wall, where the first pass of the Great Wall was built on the Shanhaiguan (known as the “Number One Pass Under Heaven”), the first mountain the Great Wall climbs. Jia Shan is also here, as is the Jiumenkou, which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge. Shanhaiguan Great Wall is called the “Museum of the Construction of the Great Wall”, because of the Meng Jiang-Nu Temple, built during the Song Dynasty.

Characteristics
Before the use of bricks, the Great Wall was mainly built from earth, stones, and wood.

During the Ming Dynasty, however, bricks were heavily used in many areas of the wall, as were materials such as tiles, lime, and stone. The size and weight of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone, so construction quickened. Additionally, bricks could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth. Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick, but is more difficult to use. Consequently, stones cut in rectangular shapes were used for the foundation, inner and outer brims, and gateways of the wall. Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall, with defensive gaps a little over 30 cm (a foot) tall, and about 23 cm (9 inches) wide.

The steps that form the Great Wall of China are very steep and tall in some areas. Tourists often become exhausted climbing the wall and walk no more than a kilometre or two (around a mile).

Condition

The Great Wall at Mutianyu, near BeijingWhile some portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even reconstructed, in many locations the Wall is in disrepair. Those parts might serve as a village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and roads.[2] Sections of the Wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism. Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way of construction. No comprehensive survey of the wall has been carried out, so it is not possible to say how much of it survives, especially in remote areas. Intact or repaired portions of the Wall near developed tourist areas are often frequented by sellers of tourist kitsch.

Watchtowers and barracks

WatchtowerThe wall also has watch towers at regular intervals, which were used to store weapons, house troops, and send smoke signals. Barracks and administrative centers are located at larger intervals.

Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall, including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements, was of high importance. Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for their visibility.

Recognition
The Wall was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

Mao Zedong had a saying, "You're not a real man if you haven't climbed the Great Wall". (Traditional Chinese: 不到長城非好漢; Simplified Chinese: 不到长城非好汉; Pinyin: Bú dào Chángchéng fēi hǎo hàn) Originally this saying was used to bolster his revolution in trekking north. But over time the saying has been reduced to a promotional slogan for the Great Wall of China. In Badaling (north of Beijing) the 'real man stone' can be found with the saying engraved on it.

Visibility

Visibility from the moon

The Great Wall of China as seen in a false-color radar image from the Space Shuttle, taken in April 1994Ripley's Believe It or Not! cartoon from May 1932 makes the claim that the wall is "the mightiest work of man, the only one that would be visible to the human eye from the moon" and Richard Halliburton's 1938 book Second Book of Marvels makes a similar claim. This belief has persisted, assuming urban legend status, sometimes even entering school textbooks. Arthur Waldron, author of the most authoritative history of the Great Wall, has speculated that the belief might go back to the fascination with the "canals" once believed to exist on Mars. (The logic was simple: If people on Earth can see the Martians' canals, the Martians might be able to see the Great Wall.)

The Great Wall is a maximum 30 feet wide and is about the same color as the soil surrounding it. Based on the optics of resolving power (distance versus the width of the iris: a few millimetres for the human eye, metres for large telescopes) an object of reasonable contrast to its surroundings some four thousand miles in diameter (such as the Australian land mass) would be visible to the unaided eye from the moon (average distance from earth 238,857 miles). But the Great Wall is of course not a disc but more like a thread, and a thread a foot long would not be visible from a hundred yards away, even though a human head is. Not surprisingly, no lunar astronaut has ever claimed he could see the Great Wall from the moon.

Visibility from near earth orbit
A different question is whether it is visible form near-Earth orbit, i.e at an altitude of less than 500 km (0.1% of the distance of the moon). The consensus here is that it is barely visible, and only under nearly perfect conditions; it is no more conspicuous than many other manmade objects.

Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but discovered he was actually looking at the Grand Canal of China near Beijing. He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars, but said that "it wasn't visible to the unaided eye." US Senator Jake Garn claimed to be able to see the Great Wall with the naked eye from a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s, but his claim has been disputed by several US astronauts. Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei said he could not see it at all.

Veteran US astronaut Gene Cernan has stated: "At Earth orbit of 160 km to 320 km high, the Great Wall of China is, indeed, visible to the naked eye." Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space Station, adds that, "it's less visible than a lot of other objects. And you have to know where to look."

Neil Armstrong stated about the view from Apollo 11: "I do not believe that, at least with my eyes, there would be any man-made object that I could see. I have not yet found somebody who has told me they've seen the Wall of China from Earth orbit. ... I've asked various people, particularly Shuttle guys, that have been many orbits around China in the daytime, and the ones I've talked to didn't see it." [1]

China and the Olympics

2007-05-28T01:45:00.000-07:00

there is a difference this time. With the Olympic Games only a little more than a year away in August 2008, Chinese leaders are offering a few reforms—judicial review of death sentences and a relaxing of restrictions on foreign journalists. But according to AI, these improvements are not all that they might seem, and are overshadowed by the expression of even more intolerance towards political and religious dissent, and the attorneys who defend the dissenters. Controls on domestic journalism and the Internet are also tightening up.

Moreover, in its latest assessment of China's progress towards making human rights improvements which were promised for hosting the 2008 Olympics, AI found that the Olympics is acting as a catalyst to extend the use of house arrests of activists and detentions without trial, at least in Beijing, thereby restricting their personal freedom, while at the same time the communist regime avoids the appearance of formally imprisoning them.

Amnesty International Rebuts the Chinese Regime

When Beijing was selected by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in July 2001, China agreed to make progress in its human rights standing. The Olympic Charter states, "…Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles."

In September 2006, AI expressed its disappointment in a report to Chinese authorities and the International Olympic Committee (IOC), regarding the poor progress China is making with respect to human rights. The regime ignored the detailed AI report and when asked about it at a news conference, the Foreign Ministry spokesperson, Qin Gang, accused AI of being "biased against China" and of "politicizing" the Olympic Games.

Amnesty International responded first of all that it has no political agenda and that its sole reason for existence is for the sake of human rights in China and elsewhere in the world. AI said that when Beijing was awarded the Olympics, Chinese officials themselves repeatedly linked the hosting by Beijing with human rights. The IOC says it relies on international human rights organizations like AI to monitor and report on human rights developments, according to AI. In other words, AI has a legitimate role to play here which Chinese officials tacitly acknowledged upon being selected in 2001.

"The concerns which Amnesty International is [sic] raising in the run-up to the Olympic Games are human rights issues which have a direct link with preparations for the Olympics in Beijing or with core principles in the Olympic Charter," says an AI report (Sept. 30, 2006).

"The IOC cannot want an Olympics that is tainted with human rights abuses – whether families forcibly evicted from their homes to make way for sports arenas or growing numbers of peaceful activists held under 'house arrest' to stop them drawing attention to human rights issues," said Catherine Baker, Deputy Asia Pacific Director at AI.

The IOC has sent mixed messages as to how serious they are in enforcing an agreement that China would have to improve its human rights record to be host of the 2008 Games, according to AI. The human rights organization recognizes the considerable leverage that the IOC has on the Chinese rulers and urges the IOC to raise the human rights concerns publicly, if necessary, as the Olympics approach.

On another front, China has been criticized by the Bush administration for not doing enough to pressure the Sudanese government in accepting the UN plan to station 20,000 soldiers and police in the Darfur region to protect the population. The Washington Post reported on May 19 that a letter was sent to the Chinese regime, signed by 108 members of the U.S. House of Representatives, which the Post summarized, "Beijing Olympics could be endangered if China did not change its policies in Sudan." China's Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi said on May 18 that it was contrary to the "Olympic spirit" to link the Beijing Olympics with Chinese policy in Darfur, says the Post.

China's New Strategy on Activism

More tolerance for a few dissidents is used to mask the persecution of many others who try to report or campaign more widely on human rights violations. For example, two veteran dissidents who were active in the 1989 pro-democracy movement were allowed to travel to Hong Kong for the first time. Meanwhile, however, "many more activists face intimidation, arbitrary detention and intrusive surveillance of family members," says AI.

An example of the latter is Ye Guozhu, who is serving a 4-year prison sentence for organizing a demonstration against forced evictions in Beijing. He was reportedly beaten at the end of 2006 with electro-shock batons at Chaobai prison in Beijing.

Another example cited is defense attorney Gao Zhisheng, who is being held by police "as a prisoner in his own home." Gao has not been allowed to practice law after he published an open letter to Hu Jintao (the head of the Chinese communist regime), calling for religious freedom, the rule of law, and an end to the "barbaric" persecution of the Falun Gong. When recently held in police custody, Gao told AI that he was treated harshly, which included being handcuffed and forced to sit in an iron chair or cross-legged for extended periods, with bright lights shown upon him. He was convicted of "inciting subversion."

Death Penalty Review

One reform touted by the Chinese regime is that now the Supreme People's Court "resumed its role of approving all death sentences passed in China," which on the face of it sounds like progress. AI expressed concern, however, that the review procedure focuses on largely ensuring that the death penalty is applied in a uniform manner across provinces "rather than effectively addressing potential miscarriages of justice in individual cases." AI said it was concerned that a limited paper review would not expose the use of torture by the police to extort confessions when the evidence relating to such abuses had not been introduced in the trial. AI used the example of Xu Shuangfu, a Protestant leader, who was executed with 11 others last November. Xu reportedly said he had been beaten with heavy chains and sticks, electric shock to the toes, fingers, and genitals and forced injection of hot pepper, gasoline and ginger into the nose to force his confession. The court and appeals courts would not allow his lawyers to introduce these allegations as evidence in his defense, says AI.

Buddhism

2007-05-28T01:42:00.000-07:00

Origin
Prince Siddhartha Gautama is believed by Buddhists to have been born in Lumbini[2] and raised in Kapilavastu near the present-day Indian-Nepalese border.[3] After his attainment of "Awakening" (bodhi - popularly called "Enlightenment" in the West) at the age of 35, he was known as Buddha or Gautama Buddha. He spent some 45 years teaching his insights (Dharma). According to scholars, he lived around the fifth century BCE, but his more exact birthdate is open to debate.[4] He died around the age of 80 in Kushinagara (India).

Buddhism spread throughout the Indian subcontinent and into neighboring countries (such as Sri Lanka) in the five centuries following the Buddha's passing. It spread further into Asia and elsewhere over the next two millennia.

Divisions
The original teachings and monastic organization established by Buddha can be referred to as pre-sectarian Buddhism, but all the current divisions within Buddhism are too much influenced by later history to warrant inclusion under this name.[citation needed] The most frequently used classification of present-day Buddhism among scholars[5] divides present-day adherents into the following three traditions[6] or geographical[7] or cultural[8] areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.

An alternative scheme used by some scholars[9] has two divisions, Theravada and Mahayana, with the latter including the last two traditions above. This scheme is that of ordinary usage in the English language.[10] Some scholars[11]use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.

Terminology
The terminology for the major divisions of Buddhism can be confusing, as Buddhism is variously divided by scholars and practitioners according to geographic, historical, and philosophical criteria, with different terms often being used in different contexts. The following terms may be encountered in descriptions of the major Buddhist divisions:

Early Buddhist Schools
The schools into which Buddhism became divided in its first few centuries; only one of these survives as an independent school, Theravada
East Asian Buddhism
A term used by scholars[12] to cover the Buddhist traditions of Japan, Korea, Singapore and most of China and Vietnam
Eastern Buddhism
An alternative name used by some scholars[13] for East Asian Buddhism; also sometimes used to refer to all traditional forms of Buddhism, as distinct from Western(ized) forms.
Esoteric Buddhism
Usually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[14] Some scholars have applied the term to certain practices found within the Theravada, particularly in Cambodia.[15]
Hinayana
A pejorative term used in Mahayana doctrine to denigrate its opponents and those deemed to be striving solely for their own liberation rather than that of all other beings [16]. It is sometimes used to refer to the early Buddhist schools, including the contemporary Theravada, although the legitimacy of this is disputed[17]. Its use in scholarly publications is controversial[18]. In some Mahayana schools the term is not perceived to be pejorative, but is used with respect proper to teachings coming direct from the Buddha. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels[19] regardless of school.
Lamaism
An old term, still sometimes used, synonymous with Tibetan Buddhism; widely considered derogatory.
Mahayana
A movement that emerged out of the early Buddhist schools, together with its later descendants, East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayana traditions are sometimes listed separately. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels[20] regardless of school.
Mantrayana
Usually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[21] The Tendai school in Japan has been described as influenced by Mantrayana.[22]
Northern Buddhism
An alternative term used by some scholars[23] for Tibetan Buddhism. Also, an older term still sometimes used to encompass both East Asian and Tibetan traditions.
Southeast Asian Buddhism
An alternative name used by some scholars[24] for Theravada.
Southern Buddhism
An alternative name used by some scholars[25] for Theravada.
Tantrayana or Tantric Buddhism
Usually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[26] The tantra divisions of some editions of the Tibetan scriptures include the Heart Sutra, a text widely used in most East Asian traditions,[27] and/or versions of texts found in the Theravada scriptures.[28] Some scholars[29] have used the term tantric Theravada to refer to certain practices found particularly in Cambodia.
Theravada
The traditional Buddhism of Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and parts of Vietnam, China, India, Bangladesh and Malaysia. It is the only surviving representative of the historical early Buddhist schools. The term 'Theravada' is also sometimes used to refer to all the early Buddhist schools.[30]
Tibetan Buddhism
Usually understood as including the Buddhism of Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan and parts of China, India and Russia, which follow the Tibetan tradition.
Vajrayana
A movement that developed out of Indian Mahayana, together with its later descendants. There is some disagreement on exactly which traditions fall into this category. Tibetan Buddhism is universally recognized as falling under this heading; many also include also the Japanese Shingon school. Some scholars[31]also apply the term to the Korean milgyo tradition, which is not a separate school. One scholar[32] says, "Despite the efforts of generations of Buddhist thinkers. it remains exceedingly difficult to identify precisely what it is that sets the Vajrayana apart."

Buddhism Today
Indian Buddhism had become virtually extinct, but is now again gaining strength. Buddhism continues to attract followers around the world and is considered a major world religion. According to one source,[33] "World estimates for Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350 million." However, estimates are uncertain for several countries. According to one analysis,[34] Buddhism is the fifth-largest religion in the world behind Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and traditional Chinese religion. The monks' order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is amongst the oldest organizations on earth.

Shaolin Monastery

2007-05-28T01:21:00.001-07:00

Founding and early history
The Shaolin Monastery was originally founded in AD 495 by the Buddhist monk Batuo, an Indian dhyana master. [1] Batuo went to China to preach Buddhism in AD 464. The Shaolin Temple was built thirty-one years later, by the order of emperor Wei Xiao Wen (471–500). [2] The temple originally consisted of a round dome used as a shrine and a platform where Indian and Hanu["Chinese"] monks translated Indian scriptures into native Hanu["Chinese"] languages. [3]

The introduction of fighting skills at Shaolin Monastery has been attributed in legend to the Indian monk Bodhidharma, who went to the monastery in 527, three decades after it was founded by Batuo. Bodhidharma allegedly spent nine years in contemplation, facing the wall of a cave on Song Mountain above the monastery. For exercise and protection from wild animals, he taught himself self-defense and later passed the skills along to his disciples. [2]

The ancient martial arts probably originated even earlier as Dharmic monks learned to fend off brigands and other predators.[2]

According to the Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks (AD 645) by Daoxuan, the Shaolin Monastery was built on the north side of Shaoshi, the western peak of Mount Song, one of the Sacred Mountains of China, by Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty for the monk Bátuó. Yang Xuanzhi, in the Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang (AD 547), and Li Xian, in the Ming Yitongzhi (AD 1461), concur with Daoxuan's location and attribution. The Jiaqing Chongxiu Yitongzhi (AD 1843) specifies that this monastery, located in the province of Henan, was built in the 20th year of the Tàihé era of the Northern Wei Dynasty, that is, the monastery was built in 497 CE.

Kangxi, the second Qing emperor, was a supporter of the Shaolin temple in Henan and he wrote the calligraphic inscription that, to this day, hangs over the main temple gate
Destruction

The monastery has been destroyed and rebuilt many times. Perhaps the best-known story of the Temple's destruction is that it was destroyed in 1732 by the Qing government for supposed anti-Qing activities; this destruction is also supposed to have helped spread Shaolin martial arts through China by means of fugitive monks. This story commonly appears in martial arts history and in fiction.

However, accounts of the Qing Dynasty destroying the Shaolin temple may refer to a southern Shaolin temple, which Ju Ke, in the Qing bai lei chao (1917), located in Fujian Province. Additionally, some martial arts historians, such as Tang Hao and Stanley Henning, believe that the story is likely fictional, appearing only at the very end of the Qing period in novels and sensational literature.

20th & 21st century history
In 1928, the warlord Shi Yousan set fire to the monastery, destroying many priceless manuscripts of the temple library, some of its halls, and damaging the aforementioned Stele.

The Cultural Revolution purged all monks and Buddhist materials from within its walls, leaving the temple barren for years. During most of the second half of the 20th century, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) used Shao-lin for training bogus monks- actually Red Guard or Red Army soldiers/agents. The temple and grounds, including the cemetery of past priests known as Ta-lin (Big Forest) and the Pool of the Nine Dragons, was used as an artillery target by the CCP army for decades.

The target practice extended to Omei (Emei) Mountain Temple, a place that once housed the Shao-lin sister nuns. Shao-lin was subsequently rebuilt, repopulated and designated an official tourist site by the Chinese government after the overwhelming success of the Jet Li movie Shaolin Temple in 1982.

Martial arts groups from all over the world have made donations for the upkeep of the temple and grounds, and are subsequently honored with carved stones near the entrance of the temple.

In the past, many people have tried to capitalize on the Shaolin Monastery by building their own schools on Mount Song. However, the Chinese government eventually outlawed this, and so the schools all moved to the nearby towns. The CCP did not wish its monopoly on all things Shaolin to be jeopardized, nor did it wish to lose the lucrative franchise of Shaolin souvenirs.

A Dharma gathering was held between August 19 and 20, 1999, in the Shaolin Monastery, Songshan, China, for Buddhist Master Shi Yong Xin to take office as abbot. He is the thirteenth successor after Buddhist abbot Xue Ting Fu Yu. In March 2006 President Putin of Russia became the first foreign leader to visit the monastery.

Yang style tai chi chuan

2007-05-28T01:17:00.000-07:00

History
The Yang family first became involved in the study of T'ai Chi in the early 1800s. The founder of the Yang style was Yang Lu-ch'an (楊露禪), aka Yang Fu-k'ui (楊福魁, 1799-1872), who studied under Ch'en Chang-hsing starting in 1820. Yang's subsequent expression of T'ai Chi as a teacher in his own right became known as the Yang style, and directly led to the development of the other three major styles of T'ai Chi (see below). Yang Lu-ch'an (and some would say the art of T'ai Chi Ch'üan in general) came to prominence as a result of his being hired by the Chinese Imperial family to teach T'ai Chi to the elite Palace Battalion of the Imperial Guards in 1850, a position he held until his death.

Yang Lu-ch'an passed his art to:

his second son but oldest son to live to maturity, Yang Pan-hou (楊班侯, 1837-1890), who was also retained as a martial arts instructor by the Chinese Imperial family. Yang Pan-hou became the formal teacher of Wu Ch'uan-yü (Wu Quanyou), a Manchu Banner cavalry officer of the Palace Battalion, even though Yang Lu-ch'an was Wu Ch'uan-yü's first T'ai Chi Ch'uan teacher. Wu Ch'uan-yü's son, Wu Chien-ch'üan (Wu Jianquan), also a Banner officer, became known as the co-founder (along with his father) of the Wu style. Yang Pan-hou is also said to have taught a student named Wang Chiao-Yu. Wang taught Kuo Lien Ying. Kuo's method is called the Kuang P'ing (Guangping) style.
his third son Yang Chien-hou (Jianhou) (1839-1917), who passed it to his sons, Yang Shao-hou (楊少侯, 1862-1930) and Yang Ch'eng-fu (楊澄甫, 1883-1936).
Wu Yu-hsiang (Wu Yuxiang, 武禹襄, 1813-1880) who also developed his own Wu style, which eventually, after three generations, led to the development of Sun style T'ai Chi Ch'uan.
Yang Ch'eng-fu removed the vigorous Fa-jing (發勁 release of power), energetic jumping, stamping, and other abrupt movements to emphasise Ta Chia (大架 large frame style). This style has slow, steady, expansive and soft movements suitable for general practitioners. Thus, Yang Ch'eng-fu is largely responsible for standardizing and popularizing the Yang style T'ai Chi widely practised today. Yang Ch'eng-fu moved to Shanghai in the 1920s, teaching there until the end of his life. His descendants are still teaching in schools associated with their family internationally.

Tung Ying-chieh (Dong Yingjie, 董英杰, 1898-1961), Ch'en Wei-ming (Chen Weiming), Fu Zhongwen (Fu Chung-wen, 1903-1994), Li Yaxuan (李雅轩, 1894-1976) and Cheng Man-ch'ing were famous students of Yang Ch'eng-fu. Each of them taught extensively, founding groups teaching T'ai Chi to this day. Cheng Man-ch'ing, perhaps the most famous outside of China, significantly shortened and simplified the traditional forms Yang taught him after his teacher's passing, supposedly to make them more accessible to larger numbers of students. Although Cheng's modifications are considered controversial by most other schools and are not recognized by the Yang family, Cheng Man-ch'ing was one of several Yang style masters to teach T'ai Chi Ch'üan in the West. Cheng Taught in New York City. He was predated by teachers in Hawaii and San Francisco. His most notable student was Liang Tsung-tsai who was his teaching assistant in Taiwan and later taught in Boston.

Another student of Yang Ch'eng-fu is Jiang Yu Kun (1913-1980).

Other versions of Yang style come from the Yang Shao-hou and Yang Pan-hou lineages. Yang Shao-hou's student Hsiung Yang-ho taught in Taiwan. Hsiung's most famous students who taught in the United States were Liang Tsung-tsai (a.k.a. T.T. Liang) and Tchoung Ta-tchen. The Yang Pan-hou lineage terminates in the Wu Ch'ien Ch'uan style and the Kuang P'ing style. The Kuang P'ing style was taught in San Francisco in the mid 1960's by Kuo Lien Ying.

Wong Fei Hung

2007-05-28T01:13:00.000-07:00

Early years
Legend has it that Wong Fei Hung was born in Foshan on the ninth day of the seventh month of the twenty-seventh year of the reign of Emperor Daoguang (1847). When Wong was five, he began his study of martial arts under his father Wong Kei Ying. To supplement his poor family's income, he followed his father to Foshan, Guangzhou and throughout the rest of Guangdong Province to do martial arts performances and to sell medicines.

Well within his youth, Wong began showing great potential as a martial artist. At the age of thirteen, while giving a martial arts demonstration at Douzhixiang, Foshan, Wong Fei Hung met Lam Fuk Sing, the first apprentice of Tit Kiu Saam, who taught him the "tour de force" of Iron Wire Fist and Sling, which helped him become a master of Hung Gar. When he was sixteen, Wong set up martial arts schools at Shuijiao, Diqipu, Xiguan, Guangdong Province, and then opened his clinic 'Po Chi Lam' (寶芝林) on Renan Street in Foshan. By his early 20s, he was fast making his mark as a highly-respected physician and martial artist.

Later years
As a famous martial arts master, he had many apprentices. He was successfully engaged by Jiming Provincial Commander-in-Chief Wu Quanmei and Liu Yongfu as the military medical officer, martial art general drillmaster, and Guangdong local military general drillmaster. He later followed Liu Youngfu to fight against the Japanese army in Taiwan. His life was full of frustration, and in his later years he experienced the loss of his son and the burning of Po Chi Lam. On lunar year, the twenty-fifth day of the third month in 1924, Wong Fei Hung died of illness in Guangdong Chengxi Fangbian Hospital. His wife and two of his prominent students, Lam Sai-Wing and Tang Sai-King, moved to Hong Kong, where they continued teaching Wong's martial art. Wong became a legendary hero whose real-life story was mixed freely with fictional exploits on the printed page and onscreen.

As a martial artist
Wong was a master of the Chinese martial art Hung Gar. He systematized the predominant style of Hung Gar and choreographed its version of the famous Tiger Crane Paired Form Fist, which incorporates his "Ten Special Fist" techniques. Wong was famous for his skill with the technique known as the "No Shadow Kick". He was known to state the names of the techniques he used while fighting.

Wong Fei Hung also became adept at using weapons such as the wooden long staff and the southern tiger fork. Soon after, stories began circulating about his mastery of these weapons. One story recounts how he defeated a 30-man gang on the docks of Canton using the staff.

Wong is sometimes included in the Ten Tigers of Canton (ten of the top martial arts masters in Guangdong towards the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), a group to which his father Wong Kei Ying belonged).

Kung Fu

2007-05-28T01:10:00.000-07:00

History
The term kung fu was not popular until the 20th century, thus the word would be seldom found in any ancient texts. The term was first known to have been reported by a Westerner, French Jesuit missionary Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, in the 18th century and was known little in the mainstream English language until approximately the late 1960s, when it became popular because of the Hong Kong films, especially those by Bruce Lee, and later Kung Fu - the television series. Before that it was referred to primarily as "Chinese boxing". Kung Fu, as it is written here, refers to the general term of Chinese martial arts. Shaolin Kung Fu refers to the style that was developed in the Shaolin temples.

Translation and usage
Nowadays, the most common use of the term kung fu is when referring to Chinese martial arts in general. Thus, when someone says they study kung fu, they likely mean they study one of the many styles of Chinese martial arts. (An alternative term might be "Zhongguo wushu" (中國武術, literally China martial art)). The original meaning of kung fu is quite different, and is hard to translate as there is no English equivalent. In short, 功夫 (gōngfu) means "achievement through great effort" or simply virtue. It combines 功 (gōng) meaning achievement or merit, and 夫 (fū) which translates into man. In Mandarin, when two "first tone" words such as gōng and fū are combined, the second word often takes a neutral tone, in this case forming gōngfu.

Originally, to practice kung fu did not just mean to practice Chinese martial arts. Instead, it referred to the process of one's training - the strengthening of the body and the mind, the learning and the perfection of one's skills - rather than to what was being trained. It refers to excellence achieved through long practice in any endeavor. You can say that a person's kung fu is good in cooking, or that someone has kung fu in calligraphy; saying that a person possesses kung fu in an area implies skill in that area, which they have worked hard to develop. Someone with "bad kung fu" simply has not put enough time and effort into training, or seems to lack the motivation to do so. Kung fu is also a name used for the elaborate Fujian tea ceremony (Kung-fu cha).

There is a curious contemporary twist on this meaning in the hacker culture: there the fu has been generalized to a suffix, implying that the thing suffixed involves great skill or effort. For example, one may talk of "script-fu" to refer to complicated scripting. It is unknown whether this was consciously based on the original, broader meaning of the term or whether it was a simple wordplay on the less general Western notion of "kung fu".

In Japanese, the characters for kung fu (功夫) retain an approximation of their Chinese reading, and are pronounced kanfū (カンフー). Chinese martial arts in general are also referred to as chūgoku ken (中国拳) or chūgoku kempō(中国拳法), which translates literally to "China fist" and "China fist law," respectively. (Kempō is a generic term for a punching/striking art of Chinese origins.)

In Korean, kung fu is called gongbu (공부), which simply means "study."

Related terms
While the term Kung Fu is used globally as a generic term for the Chinese martial arts — such as Shaolin Kung Fu — certain Chinese words may be used to denote some specific aspect of a style. These words are often based on the theme of the human hand. A common term is the Mandarin word quan or chuan (拳, Cantonese: kuen, Japanese: ken), meaning fist, which conveys the sense of a style of boxing or striking, as in Shaolin Quan (Young Forest Fist) and Wing Chun Kuen (Eternal Spring Fist). The word "chuan", however, may not always denote boxing; Tai Chi Chuan (Supreme Ultimate Fist), for instance, contains the word "chuan" but does not focus on striking in common practice. The term chang or zhang (掌), meaning palm, is also seen, an example being Bagua Zhang (Eight Trigrams Palm). Another similar word is shou (手), or hand, as in Sanshou (Loose Hand or Free Hand).

Some words refer to an art's origin or tradition. One term is pai (派), denoting a school of thought or system, as in Tien Shan Pai and Ying Jow Pai. This is related to the Japanese term ryuha (流派, Mandarin: liúpài), meaning "mainstream school of thought". Some martial arts of Southern China use the Cantonese word gar (家, Mandarin pinyin: jiā), meaning family, as in Hung Gar and Lau Gar (Hung Family, Lau Family), among others.

Laozi

2007-05-28T00:26:00.000-07:00

Laozi (Chinese: 老子; Hanyu Pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade-Giles: Lao Tzu; also Lao Tse, Laotze, Lao Zi, and other variations) was an ancient Chinese philosopher. Laozi literally means "Old Master" and is generally considered an honorific. According to Chinese tradition, Laozi lived in the 6th century BC. Many historians contend that Laozi actually lived in the 4th century BC, concurrent with the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period, but some claim he is not a historical figure.[1] Laozi was credited with writing the central Taoist work, the Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching), originally simply know by the author's name. Taishang Laojun is a title for Laozi in the Taoist religion. It refers to him as "One of the Three Pure Ones".

Contents [hide]
1 Biography
2 Names
3 Taoism
4 Influence
5 References
6 Footnotes
7 Further reading
8 External links

Biography

Laozi leaves China on his water buffalo.Laozi is popularly regarded as the author of the Dao De Jing. There are many popular accounts of his life. His life is shrouded in mystery and mostly unknown. He is often regarded as an older contemporary of Confucius, but modern scholarship places him centuries later. Facts and myths are impossible to separate regarding his life. It has been debated throughout history whether he authored the Dao De Jing, or even existed as an individual person.[2][3][4]

In legend, he was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. It is said that he stayed in the womb and matured for sixty-two years. He was born when his mother leaned against a plum tree. He emerged a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, which are a sign of wisdom and long life.[5][6]

According to popular biographies, he worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Chou. This allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. Laozi never opened a formal school. Nonetheless, he attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are numerous variations of a story depicting Confucius consulting Laozi about rituals.[7][8]

Laozi is said to have married and had a son named Tsung, who was a celebrated soldier. A large number people trace their lineage back to Laozi, as the T'ang Dynasty did. Many, or all, of the lineages may be inaccurate. However, they are a testament to the impact of Laozi on Chinese culture.[9]

Traditional accounts state that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of the city and noted the kingdom's decline. At the age of 160, he ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier. At the western gate of the city, or kingdom, he was recognized by a guard. The sentry asked the old master to produce a record of his wisdom. The resulting book is said to be the Tao Te Ching. In some versions of the tale, the sentry is so touched by the work that he leaves with Laozi to never be seen again. Some legends elaborate further that the "Old Master" was the teacher of the Buddha, or the Buddha himself.[10][11]

Names
The name "Laozi" is an honorific. Lao means "venerable" or "old". Zi or tzu translates literally as "son", but it was also a term for a rank of nobleman equivalent to viscount, as well as a term of respect attached to the names of revered masters; thus, "Laozi" can be translated roughly as "the old master". The character for Zi can also signify "midnight".

Laozi's personal name may have been Li Er. His courtesy name may have been Boyang, and also Dan, which also means "mysterious". Laozi is also known as Laodan, Great Lord, and Lao Tzu, the Lord of Tao.

During the Li Tang Dynasty, in order to create a connection to Laozi as the ancestor of the imperial family, he was honoured as The Emperor of Xuanyuan and with a temple name of Shengzu. Xuanyuan means "profoundly elementary" and Shengzu means "saintly or sagely progenitor".

[edit] Taoism

Laozi, depicted as the Taoist god.Laozi's work, the Tao Te Ching, is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese philosophy. It is his magnum opus, covering large areas of philosophy from individual spirituality and inter-personal dynamics to political techniques. The Tao Te Ching is said to contain 'hidden' instructions for Taoist adepts (often in the form of metaphors) relating to Taoist meditation and breathing.

Laozi developed the concept of "Tao", often translated as "the Way", and widened its meaning to an inherent order or property of the universe: "The way Nature is". He highlighted the concept of wu wei, or "action without action". This does not mean that one should hang around and do nothing, but that one should avoid explicit intentions, strong wills or proactive initiatives.

Laozi believed that violence should be avoided as much as possible, and that military victory should be an occasion for mourning rather than triumphant celebration.

Laozi said that the codification of laws and rules created difficulty and complexity in managing and governing.

As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. The writings attributed to him are often very dense and poetic. They serve as a starting point for cosmological or introspective meditations. Many of the aesthetic theories of Chinese art are widely grounded in his ideas and those of his most famous follower Zhuang Zi.

The Anarcho-capitalist economist Murray N. Rothbard suggests that Laozi was the first libertarian, likening Laozi's ideas on government to F.A. Hayek's theory of spontaneous order. [1] (See also: [2]PDF (1.20 MiB).) Similarly, the Cato Institute's David Boaz includes passages from the Tao Te Ching in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader. [3] Philosopher Roderick Long, however, argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier Confucian writers. [4]PDF (129 KiB)

Influence
Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi, to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, Laozi's most famous follower, had a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture. Zhuangzi is a central authority regarding eremitism, a particular variation of monasticism sacrificing social aspects for religious aspects of life. Zhuangzi considered eremitism the highest ideal, if properly understood.[12]

Scholars such as Aat Vervoom have postulated that Zhuangzi advocated a hermit immersed in society. This view of eremitism holds that seclusion is hiding anonymously in society. To a Zhuangzi hermit, being unknown and drifting freely is a state of mind. This reading is based on the "inner chapters" of Zhuangzi.[13]

Scholars such as James Bellamy hold that this could be true and has been interpreted similarly at various points in Chinese history. However, the "outer chapters" of Zhuangzi have historically played a pivotal role in the advocacy of reclusion. While some scholars state that Laozi was the central figure of Han Dynasty eremitism, historical texts do not seem to support that position.[14]

Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings on the power of the weak.[15]

Confucius

2007-05-28T00:22:00.000-07:00

Confucius (Chinese: 孔夫子; Hanyu Pinyin: Kǒng Fūzǐ; Wade-Giles: K'ung-fu-tzu, lit. "Master Kung,"[1] 551 BCE – 479 BCE) was an esteemed Chinese thinker and social philosopher, whose teachings and philosophy have deeply influenced Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese thought and life.

His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism (法家) or Taoism (道家) during the Han Dynasty.[2][3][4] Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism (儒家). It was introduced to Europe by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci, who was the first to Latinise the name as "Confucius" .

His teachings are known primarily through the Analects of Confucius (論語), a collection of "brief aphoristic fragments", which was compiled many years after his death. Modern historians do not believe that any specific documents can be said to have been written by Confucius,[5][6] but for nearly 2,000 years he was thought to be the editor or author of all the Five Classics[7][8] such as the Classic of Rites (editor), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋) (author).

Personal life and family
According to tradition, Confucius was born in 551 BCE. This was during the Spring and Autumn Period, at the beginning of the Hundred Schools of Thought philosophical movement. Confucius was born in the city of Qufu, in the Chinese State of Lu (now part of Shandong Province). He was born into a poor deposed noble family that had recently fled from the State of Song.[9]

The Records of the Grand Historian (史記), compiled some four centuries later, indicate that Confucius was conceived out of wedlock (野合).[10] His father was seventy, and his mother only eighteen at his birth. His father died when he was three,[11] and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. His social ascendancy linked him to the growing class of Shì (士), a class between the old nobility and the common people.

As a child, Confucius was said to have enjoyed putting ritual vases on the sacrifice table.[10] He married a young girl named Qi Quan (亓官) at nineteen, and she had their first child Kong Li (孔鯉) when he was twenty. Confucius worked as a shepherd, cowherd, clerk and book-keeper.[12] When Confucius was twenty-three, his mother died and he entered three years of mourning.

As a young man, he was a minor administrative manager in the State of Lu. He rose to the position of Justice Minister (大司寇) at fifty-three.[13] After two years of service for the state of Lu, Confucius resigned because he disapproved of the politics of his Duke.

According to the Analects of Confucius, the state of Lu was prosperous due in part to the wise administration of Confucius[citation needed]. This is unlikely as Confucius never held any major position in either Lu or anywhere else. There is a legend that the neighbouring state of Qi (齊) was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful. Qi then decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending one hundred good horses and eighty beautiful dancing girls to the Duke of Lu. The Duke of Lu then indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. At the sacrificial rites he did not give the counselors the meat in accordance to the rites. Confucius left Lu in disapproval.[10][14]

Confucius then began a long journey (or set of journeys) around the small kingdoms of north-central China, including the states of Wei (衛), Song (宋), Chen (陳) and Cai (蔡).[15] He espoused his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.

According to the Analects, at sixty-eight[13] Confucius returned home and spent his last years teaching disciples and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of books called the Five Classics.[16][17]

Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples,[18][19] he passed away at the age of 72 (or 73).[20]

Teachings

Statue of Confucius in front of a Confucian Temple in Beijing.
Confucian temple in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing".[7] He put the greatest emphasis on the importance of study,[21][22] and it is the Chinese character for study that opens the text. In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master.[23] Far from trying to build a systematic theory of life and society or establish a formalism of rites, he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world,[24] mostly through the old scriptures and by relating past political events (like the Annals) or past feelings of common people (like the Book of Odes[25]).[26]

In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven that could unify the "world" (i.e., China) and bestow peace and prosperity on the people.[27] Therefore, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and maybe twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: rulers (not lord of states) to be chosen on merit, not parentage,[28][29] rulers who were devoted to their people, and rulers who reached for perfection.[30] Such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.[31]

One of the deepest teachings of Confucius, one of the hardest to understand from a Western point of view, may have been the superiority of exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His ethics may be considered one of the greatest virtue ethics. This kind of "indirect" way to achieve a goal is used widely in his teachings by way of allusions, innuendo, and even tautology. This is why his teachings need to be examined and put into proper context in order to understand them.[32][33] A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court, Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses.
Analects X.11, tr. A. Waley
The anecdote is not long, but it is of paramount importance. In his time horses were perhaps 10 times more expensive than stablemen. By not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrated his greatest priority: human beings. Thus, according to many Eastern and Western commentators, Confucius' teaching can be considered a Chinese variant of humanism.[34]

Perhaps his most famous teaching was the Golden Rule:

Adept Kung asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?"
The Master replied: "How about 'shu': never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself?"
Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton
Confucius' teachings were later turned into a very elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers who organized his teachings into the Analects. In the centuries after his death, Mencius[35] and Xun Zi[36] both wrote important books, and in time, a philosophy was elaborated, which is known in the West as Confucianism. After more than a thousand years, the scholar Zhu Xi created a very different interpretation of Confucianism which is now called Neo-Confucianism, to distinguish it from the ideas expressed in the Analects. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China and Vietnam[37] until the 1800s.

Names

Confucius (illustration from Myths & Legends of China, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner)The Jesuits, while translating Chinese books into Western languages, translated 孔夫子 as Confucius. This Latinised form has since been commonly used in Western countries.
In systematic Romanisations:
Kǒng Fūzǐ (or Kǒng fū zǐ) in pinyin.
K'ung fu-tze in Wade-Giles (or, less accurately, Kung fu-tze).
Fūzǐ means teacher. Since it was disrespectful to call the teacher by name according to Chinese culture, he is known as just "Master Kong", or Confucius, even in modern days.
The character 'fu' is optional; in modern Chinese he is more often called Kong Zi.
His actual name was 孔丘, Kǒng Qiū. Kǒng is a common family name in China.
Though D.C. Lau Translates the name as Kung Ch'iu.

His courtesy name was 仲尼, Zhòng Ní.
In 1 CE (first year of the Yuanshi period of the Han Dynasty), he was given his first posthumous name: 褒成宣尼公, Lord Bāochéngxūan, which means "Laudably Declarable Lord Ni."
His most popular posthumous names are
至聖先師, Zhìshèngxiānshī, meaning "The Former Teacher who Arrived at Sagehood" (comes from 1530, the ninth year of the Jianing period of the Ming Dynasty);
至聖, Zhìshèng, "the Greatest Sage";
先師, Xiānshī, "the Teacher who assists the wise to their attainment".[38]
He is also commonly known as 萬世師表, Wànshìshībiǎo, "the Model Teacher" in Taiwan.

Philosophy
Main article: Confucianism
Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, arguments continue over whether it is a religion. Confucianism lacks an afterlife, any deities, and is unconcerned with spiritual matters such as the nature of the soul.

Confucius' principles gained wide acceptance primarily because of their basis in common Chinese opinion. He championed strong familial loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, and the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself" (similar to the Golden Rule). He also looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly the politicians, to model themselves on earlier examples. "What the superior man seeks is in himself. What the mean man seeks is in others"

Ethics
The Confucian theory of ethics is based on three important concepts:

While Confucius grew up, (禮 [礼]) lǐ referred to the three aspects of life: sacrificing to the gods, social and political institutions, and daily behavior. It was believed that lǐ originated from the heavens. Confucius argued that it flowed not from heaven but from humanity. He redefined lǐ to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society. Lǐ, to Confucius, became every action by a person aiming to meet his surface desires. These can be either good or bad. Generally, attempts to obtain short term pleasure are bad while those, which in the long term try to make one's life better, are generally good. These concepts are about doing the proper thing at the proper time.

To Confucius, yì (義 [义]) was the origin of lǐ. Yì can best be translated as righteousness. While doing things because of lǐ, one's own self-interest was not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one bases one's life upon following yì. This means that rather than pursuing one's own selfish interests, one should do what is right and moral. It is doing the right thing for the right reason. Yì is based upon reciprocity. An example of living by yì is how one must mourn one's father and mother for three years after their death. Since they took care of the child for the first three years of one's life, one must reciprocate by living in mourning for three years.

Just as lǐ flows out of yì, so yì flows out of rén (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To live by rén was even better than living by the rules of yì. To live by rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: he argued that one must always treat others just as one would want others to treat you. Virtue under Confucius is based upon harmony with other people.

He applied an early version of the Golden Rule:

"What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognises as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others." (Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm)

Politics
Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through "rites" and people's natural morality, rather than using bribery and force. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: 1. "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good." (Translated by James Legge) {The Great Learning} This "sense of shame" is an internalization of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.

While he supported the idea of the all-powerful Emperor, probably because of the chaotic state of China at his time, his philosophies contained a number of elements to limit the power of the rulers. He argued for according language with truth; thus honesty was of the most paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. In discussing the relationship between a subject and his king (or a son and his father), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the inferior must give advice to his superior if the superior was considered to be taking the wrong course of action. This was built upon by his disciple Mencius to argue that if the king was not acting like a king, he would lose the Mandate of Heaven and be overthrown. Therefore, tyrannicide is justified because a tyrant is more a thief than a king. Attempted tyrannicide, however, is not justified. An oppresive government is more feared than a tiger. "When you have faults, do not fear to abandon them."

Quote: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others"

"With coarse rice to eat, with water to drink, and my bended arm for a pillow- I still have joy in the midst of these. Riches and honors acquired by unrighteousness are to me as a floating cloud"- Confucius

Disciples and legacy

Popular image of Confucius as an object of veneration, Thian Hock Keng temple, Singapore.Main article: Disciples of Confucius
Confucius' disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. While relying heavily on Confucius' ethico-political system, two of his most famous disciples emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. Mencius articulated the infinite goodness inherent in humanity, while Xun Zi underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought.

During the Song Dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism. In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored but not long after his death his ideas became the new orthodox view on what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism. In the modern era, there are still some Confucian scholars (see New Confucianism) but during the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Communist Party of China.

In modern times, Asteroid 7853 Confucius was named after him.

Quote: "Respect yourself and others will respect you"

Home town
Soon after Confucius' death, Qufu, his hometown, became a place of devotion and remembrance. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many Chinese people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In pan-China cultures, there are many temples where representations of Buddha, Lao Zi and Confucius are found together. There are also many temples dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucianist ceremonies.

Tao

2007-05-28T00:18:00.000-07:00

Tao or Dao (道, Pinyin: Dào, Cantonese: Dou) is a Chinese character often translated as ‘Way’ or 'Path'. In ancient China, dao could be modified by other nouns. Three such compounds gained special currency in Classical Chinese philosophy. 天道 Tian dao (sky or natural dao--usually translated religiously as "heaven's Tao") 大道 Da Dao (Great dao--the actual course of all history--everything that has happened or will happen) and 人道 Ren dao (human dao, the normative orders constructed by human (social) practices). The natural dao corresponds roughly to the order expressed in the totality of natural (physical) laws. The relations of these three were the subject of the discourses of Lao Tsu and Confucius.

From the earliest recorded discourses Tian Dao is explained using the concepts of yin and yang. The resulting cosmology became a distinctive feature of Chinese philosophy not only in the Daoist schools but throughout Han and Confucian thought generally. The early thinkers, Lao Tsu and Confucius, expressed the view that human dao was embedded in natural dao. If human life is lived in accord with the natural order of things, then human beings can fulfill their true nature. In ancient Chinese civilisation Nature was not seen as a wilderness that was in need of subduing and controlling but was Herself the teacher from whom humanity could learn.

A common theme in Taoist literature is that fulfilment in life cannot be attained by forcing one's own destiny; instead, one must be receptive to the path laid for them by nature and circumstance, which will themselves provide what is necessary. Lao Tsu taught that the wisest approach was a way of ‘non-action’ ("Wu wei") – not inaction but rather a harmonisation of one’s personal will with the natural harmony and justice of Nature. ‘The World is ruled by letting things take their course. It cannot be ruled by interfering’ (Tao Te Ching; Verse 48). Nature is stabilized by order, and humans along with all other natural phenomena exist within nature. Attempting to force one's own path is futile and self-destructive.

It should be noted that in Taoism the complemental part of "non-action" ("Wu wei") is "non-left-undone" ("Wu bu wei"). Taoism should be viewed as advocating the harmonization of "passivity" and "activity/creativity" instead of just being passive. In other words through stillnes and receptivity natural intuition guides us in knowing when to act and when not to act.

TaijituLao Tsu, the legendary author of the Tao Te Ching, was the first to provide a comprehensive treatment of the Tao. The religion based on the concept of Tao - Tao Jiao - is known in English as Taoism. Lao Tsu taught that, "He who follows the Tao is one with the Tao," and "Being at one with the Tao is eternal, though the body dies, the Tao will never pass away.’ (Verses 23 & 16)

Understanding Tao
Part of a series on
Taoism

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Fundamentals
Tao · De · Xiulian

Prominent Taoists
Laozi · Zhuangzi
Zhang Daoling · Zhang Jiao
Ge Hong · Chen Tuan
Wang Chongyang

Deities and Immortals
Three Pure Ones
Jade Emperor · Xi Wangmu
Eight Immortals

Main Sects
Quanzhen School
Tianshi Dao
Zhengyi Dao
Shangqing School
Lingbao School

Taoist Texts
Tao Te Ching · Zhuangzi
Daozang

Sacred Sites
Shizhou Sandao
Grotto-heavens
Sanshiliu Xiaodongtian
Qishi'er Fudi

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Portal:Taoism

Even a cursory look at life on Earth or the universe as a whole reveals a high level of complex order, creativity and organization. The beauty of the unspoilt regions of the world; the harmonious complexity of natural ecosystems, have a ‘just-so’ quality, an integrated wholeness that the ancient Chinese called Tao. Tao is the way of heaven, a way of natural harmony; of Truth, Beauty and Justice. Lao Tzu contrasts this Great Way with the way of human beings:

The Tao of heaven is to take from those who have too much and give to those who do not have enough. Man’s way is different. He takes from those who do not have enough to give to those who already have too much. (verse 77. Tr. Gia Fu Feng)
Lao Tsu characterizes the Way of Man as one in which force is applied without the attainment of desired results:

Whenever you advise a ruler in the way of Tao, counsel him not to use force to conquer the universe. For this would only cause resistance. Thorn bushes spring up wherever the army has passed. Lean years follow in the wake of war. Just do what needs to be done. Never take advantage of power…Force is followed by loss of strength. This is not the way of Tao. That which goes against the Tao comes to an early end. (verse 30. tr. Gia Fu Feng)
All mankind’s troubles on the Earth are caused by his having forgotten the Great Way. Remembering the Great Way is a spiritual awareness of one’s deep connection with the entirety of creation. This involves the adoption of a mode of ‘non-action’ that is not inaction but rather a harmonisation of one’s personal will – otherwise tending towards egoism – with the natural harmony and justice of Tao.

Tao abides in non-action yet nothing is left undone. If kings and lords observed this, the ten thousand things would develop naturally. If they still desired to act they would return to the simplicity of formless substance. Without form there is no desire. Without desire there is tranquillity. And in this way all things would be at peace. (verse 37. tr. Gia Fu Feng)
The greatest virtue is to follow Tao and Tao alone. The Tao is elusive and intangible. Oh, it is intangible and elusive, and yet within is image. Oh, it is elusive and intangible, and yet within is form. Oh, it is dim and dark, and yet within is essence. This essence is very real, and therein lies faith. From the very beginning til now its name has never been forgotten. Thus I perceive the creation. How do I know the ways of creation? Because of this. (verse 21. tr. Gia Fu Feng)
Today, scientists call the creative principle at work in the universe the ‘principle of self-organisation’ from the observed fact that naturally occurring phenomena organize themselves into complex interdependent systems each system a ‘whole’ in itself.[citation needed] At the heart of this remarkable self-organizing principle is a somewhat mysterious entity that is unconditioned yet gives rise to everything. Understanding what the nature of this generative and organisational principle is that has given rise to diverse living beings, the stars and the planets had been the subject of much enquiry and reflection by ancient Man.[citation needed] The epoch in which the Tao Te Ching was written, the Axial Age, saw the emergence of numerous philosophies that sought to establish first principles in the understanding of Nature. India produced the Upanishads and Greece the bold hypotheses of the Ionian and Eleatic philosophers. Lao Tsu also sought to account for the origins of the ‘ten thousand things’ and their manner of growth and development.

All things arise from Tao. They are nourished by Virtue. They are formed from matter. They are shaped by environment. Thus the ten thousand things all respect Tao and honour Virtue. Respect of Tao and honour of Virtue are not demanded. But they are in the nature of things. Therefore all things arise from Tao. By Virtue they are nourished, developed, cared for, sheltered, comforted, grown and protected. Creating without claiming; doing without taking credit; guiding without interfering - this is Primal Virtue. (verse 51. tr. ibid )
The great Tao flows everywhere, both to the left and to the right. The ten thousand things depend upon it; it holds nothing back. It fulfils its purpose silently and makes no claim. It nourishes the ten thousand things. And yet is not their lord. It has no aim; it is very small. The ten thousand things return to it, yet it is not their lord. It is very great. It does not show its greatness, And is therefore truly great. (verse 34. tr. ibid)

Yield and overcome; bend and be straight; empty and be full; wear out and be new; have little and gain; have much and be confused. Therefore wise men embrace the one and set an example to all. Not putting on a display, they shine forth. Not justifying themselves, they are distinguished. Not boasting, they receive recognition. Not bragging, they never falter. They do not quarrel so no one quarrels with them. Therefore the ancients say, “Yield and overcome.” Is that an empty saying? Be really whole and all things will come to you. (verse 22. tr. Gia Fu Feng)

[edit] Some characteristics of Tao
There is a flow in the universe, and it is called dao. Dao flows slowly; however, it is never stagnant and is incredibly powerful and keeps things in the universe balanced and in order. It manifests itself through change of seasons, cycle of life, shifts of power, time, and so forth. Dao has a strong and deep connection with cosmology and the natural world, as the most well-known Daoist philosophers Laozi and Zhuangzi agreed. Dao is the law of Nature. When you follow dao, you become one with it. And it is best to also understand qi, because qi and dao go hand in hand. Qi is a Chinese term that is translated as breath, vapour, and energy. Because qi is the energy that circulates the universe, it can be said that dao is ultimately a flow of chi. Being one with dao brings best outcomes, because in that way things will fall into place as they are meant to be.

The concept of Tao is based upon the understanding that the only constant in the universe is change (see I Ching, the "Book of Changes") and that we must understand and be in harmony with this change. The change is a constant flow from non-being into being, potential into actual, yin into yang, female into male. The symbol of the Tao, called the Taijitu, is the yin yang confluently flowing into itself in a circle.

The Tao is the main theme discussed in the Tao Te Ching, an ancient Chinese scripture attributed to Lao Tsu. This book does not specifically define what the Tao is; it affirms that in the first sentence, "The Tao that can be told of is not an Unvarying Tao" (tr. Waley, modified). Instead, it points to some characteristics of what could be understood as being the Tao. Below are some excerpts from the book.

Tao as the origin of things: "Tao begets one; One begets two; Two begets three; Three begets the myriad creatures." (TTC 42, tr. Lau, modified)
Tao as an inexhaustible nothingness: "The Way is like an empty vessel / That yet may be drawn from / Without ever needing to be filled." (TTC 4, tr. Waley)
Tao is omnipotent and infallible: "What Tao plants cannot be plucked, what Tao clasps, cannot slip." (TTC 54, tr. Waley)
In the Yi Jing, a sentence closely relates Tao to Yin-Yang or Taiji, asserting that "one (phase of) Yin, one (phase of) Yang, is what is called the Tao." Being thus placed at the conjunction of Yin and Yang alternance, Tao can be understood as the continuity principle that underlies the constant evolution of the world.

Most debates between proponents of one of the Hundred Schools of Thought could be summarized in the simple question: who is closer to the Tao, or, in other words, whose "Tao" is the most powerful? As used in modern spoken and written Chinese, Tao has a wide scope of usage and meaning.

[edit] Tao in the Tao Te Ching
Tao is referred to in many ways in the Tao Te Ching. There are different shades of meanings in the various translations of this great work, which, with over 100 translations, is perhaps the most translated Chinese text in the English language. Here is one translation of the first stanza, describing Tao:

The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao;
The name that can be named is not the eternal name.
The nameless is the beginning of heaven and earth.
The named is the mother of ten thousand things.
Ever desireless, one can see the mystery.
Ever desiring, one can see the manifestations.
These two spring from the same source but differ in name;
this appears as darkness.
Darkness within darkness.
The gate to all mystery.
—(Gia-Fu Feng & Jane English, 1972).

[edit] Etymology

150pxAccording to Rose Quong in her book Chinese Written Characters: Their Wit and Wisdom, the Tao character is decomposed to mean "the path of the warrior," where warrior-monks were the original keepers of both martial arts and spiritual knowledge and wisdom.

The composition of 道 (dào) is 首 (shǒu) meaning 'head' and 辶 (辵 chuò) 'go' (Source: Wenlin). The decomposition etymology for the character 首 is distinguished by the tufts at the top, representing the distinctive hairstyle of the warrior class (a "bun"). The character 首 itself is used to refer to concepts related to the head, such as leadership and rulership.

The character 辶 (辵 chuò) 'go' in its reduced form, 廴 resembles a foot, and is meant to be evocative of its meaning "to walk," and "to go," as well as the generic radix for "the way of." This reduced radical 廴 is a component in other radicals and characters

Yoga

2007-05-28T00:02:00.000-07:00

Yoga (Devanagari: योग) is a family of ancient spiritual practices originating in India. As a general term in Hinduism, Gavin Flood defines it as referring to "technologies or disciplines of asceticism and meditation which are thought to lead to spiritual experience and profound understanding or insight into the nature of existence."[1] Outside India, Yoga has become primarily associated with the practice of asanas (postures) of Hatha Yoga (see Yoga as exercise), although it has influenced the entire dharmic religions family and other spiritual practices throughout the world.[2]

Yoga is a Sanskrit word that has a wide range of different meanings.[3] Common meanings include "joining" or "uniting", and related ideas such as "union" and "conjunction".[4] Another conceptual definition is that of "mode, manner, means"[5] or "expedient, means in general".[6]

Hindu texts discussing different aspects of yoga include the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and many others.[2][7]

Major branches of Yoga include: Hatha Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Raja Yoga. [8] [9] [10] Raja Yoga, known simply as Yoga in the context of Hindu philosophy, is one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of thought, established by the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.

History of Yoga

"Pashupati seal"

A seal from the Indus Valley Civilization, showing a figure in meditation posture.A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure.[12] This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati)[13][14] seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.[15][16][17][18] Some observers describe the figure as sitting in a traditional cross-legged yoga pose with its hands resting on its knees. The discoverer of the seal, Sir John Marshall, and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.

This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.[19][20] Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying:

Hatha Yoga Pradipika
Main article: Hatha yoga
Hatha Yoga is a particular system of Yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, a yogic sage of the 15th century in India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. Hatha Yoga is a development of — but also differs substantially from — the Raja Yoga of Patanjali, in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the physical as leading to the purification of the mind (ha) and prana, or vital energy (tha).[39][40] In contrast, the Raja Yoga posited by Patanjali begins with a purification of the mind (yamas) and spirit (niyamas), then comes to the body via asana (body postures) and pranayama (breath). Hatha yoga contains substantial tantric influence,[41][42] and marks the first point at which chakras and kundalini were introduced into the yogic canon. Compared to the seated asanas of Patanjali's Raja yoga which were seen largely as a means of preparing for meditation, it also marks the development of asanas as full body 'postures' in the modern sense.[43]

Hatha Yoga in its many modern variations is the style that most people actually associate with the word "Yoga" today.[44] Because its emphasis is on the body through asana and pranayama practice, many western students are satisfied with the physical health and vitality it develops and are not interested in the other six limbs of the complete Hatha yoga teaching, or with the even older Raja Yoga tradition it is based on.

Yoga in other traditions
The goals of yoga are expressed differently in different traditions. In Hinduism, with its variegated viewpoints and sects, Self-Realization and God-Realization are used interchangeably, with the underlying belief that the true nature of self (truth, consciousness, and bliss), revealed through the practice of yoga, has the same nature as the universal self, which may or may not be identified with a 'creator God' depending on the philosophical standpoint of the practitioner. In Western nations, where there is a strong emphasis on individualism, yoga practice may be an extension of the search for meaning in self, and integration of the different aspects of being.[citation needed]

For the average person still far from enlightenment, yoga can be a way of increasing one's spiritual awareness, or cultivating compassion. While the history of yoga strongly connects it with Hinduism, some proponents claim that yoga is not a religion itself, but contains practical steps which can be found in the esoteric spiritual practices of all religions, as well as those who do not consider themselves religious.[citation needed]

Yoga and Buddhism
Main article: Yoga and Buddhism
Yoga is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of the Dharmic religions.[45] The influence of Yoga is also visible in Buddhism, which is distinguished by its austerities, spiritual exercises, and trance states.[46][47]

A 10th century sculpture of a Yogini from the Smithsonian Institute
Yogacara Buddhism
Yogacara (Sanskrit: "Practice of Yoga [Union]" [48] ), also spelled yogāchāra, is a school of philosophy and psychology that developed in India during the 4th to 5th centuries.

Yogacara received the name as it provided a yoga, a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva.[49] The Yogacara sect teaches Yoga in order to reach enlightenment.[50]

Zen (Ch`an) Buddhism
Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga.[47] In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga, the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.[51] The melding of Yoga with Buddhism -- a process that continued through the centuries-- represents a landmark on the path of Yoga through the history of India. This phenomenon merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of meditation has its roots in yogic practices.[52] Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.[2]

Tibetan Buddhism
Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, practicioners progress to increasingly profound levels of yoga, starting with Mahā yoga, continuing to Anu yoga and ultimately undertaking the highest practice, Ati yoga. In the Sarma traditions, the Anuttara yoga class is equivalent. Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm timing in movement exercises is known as Trul khor or union of moon and sun (channel) prajna energies, and the body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of Lukhang.